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On Liberty(1859)
By Sir. John Stuart Mill
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The struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history with which we are earliest familiar, particularly in that of Greece, Rome, and England. But in old times this contest was between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the Government. By liberty, was meant protection against the tyranny of the political rulers. The rulers were conceived (except in some of the popular governments of Greece) as in a necessarily antagonistic position to the people whom they ruled. They consisted of a governing One, or a governing tribe or caste, who derived their authority from inheritance or conquest, who, at all events, did not hold it at the pleasure of the governed, and whose supremacy men did not venture, perhaps did not desire, to contest, whatever precautions might be taken against its oppressive exercise. Their power was regarded as necessary, but also as highly dangerous; as a weapon which they would attempt to use against their subjects, no less than against external enemies. To prevent the weaker members of the community from being preyed on by innumerable vultures, it was needful that there should be an animal of prey stronger than the rest, commissioned to keep them down. But as the king of the vultures would be no less bent upon preying upon the flock than any of the minor harpies, it was indispensable to be in a perpetual attitude of defence against his beak and claws. The aim, therefore, of patriots was to set limits to the power which the ruler should be suffered to exercise over the community; and this limitation was what they meant by liberty. It was attempted in two ways. First, by obtaining a recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which, if he did infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be justifiable. A second, and generally a later expedient, was the establishment of constitutional checks, by which the consent of the community, or of a body of some sort, supposed to represent its interests, was made a necessary condition to some of the more important acts of the governing power. To the first of these modes of limitation, the ruling power, in most European countries, was compelled, more or less, to submit. It was not so with the second; and, to attain this, or when already in some degree possessed, to attain it more completely, became everywhere the principal object of the lovers of liberty. And so long as mankind were content to combat one enemy by another, and to be ruled by a master, on condition of being guaranteed more or less efficaciously against his tyranny, they did not carry their aspirations beyond this point.
2
A
time, however, came, in the progress of human affairs, when men ceased to think
it a necessity of nature that their governors should be an independent power,
opposed in interest to themselves. It appeared to them much better that the
various magistrates of the State should be their tenants or delegates, revocable
at their pleasure. In that way alone, it seemed, could they have complete
security that the powers of government would never be abused to their
disadvantage. By degrees this new demand for elective and temporary rulers
became the prominent object of the exertions of the popular party, wherever any
such party existed; and superseded, to a considerable extent, the previous
efforts to limit the power of rulers. As the struggle proceeded for making the
ruling power emanate from the periodical choice of the ruled, some persons began
to think that too much importance had been attached to the limitation of the
power itself. That (it might seem) was a resource against rulers whose interests
were habitually opposed to those of the people. What was now wanted was, that
the rulers should be identified with the people; that their interest and will
should be the interest and will of the nation. The nation did not need to be
protected against its own will. There was no fear of its tyrannizing over
itself. Let the rulers be effectually responsible to it, promptly removable by
it, and it could afford to trust them with power of which it could itself
dictate the use to be made. Their power was but the nation's own power,
concentrated, and in a form convenient for exercise. This mode of thought, or
rather perhaps of feeling, was common among the last generation of European
liberalism, in the Continental section of which it still apparently
predominates. Those who admit any limit to what a government may do, except in
the case of such governments as they think ought not to exist, stand out as
brilliant exceptions among the political thinkers of the Continent. A similar
tone of sentiment might by this time have been prevalent in our own country, if
the circumstances which for a time encouraged it, had continued unaltered.
3
But,
in political and philosophical theories, as well as in persons, success
discloses faults and infirmities which failure might have concealed from
observation. The notion, that the people have no need to limit their power over
themselves, might seem axiomatic, when popular government was a thing only
dreamed about, or read of as having existed at some distant period of the past.
Neither was that notion necessarily disturbed by such temporary aberrations as
those of the French Revolution, the worst of which were the work of an usurping
few, and which, in any case, belonged, not to the permanent working of popular
institutions, but to a sudden and convulsive outbreak against monarchical and
aristocratic despotism. In time, however, a democratic republic came to occupy a
large portion of the earth's surface, and made itself felt as one of the most
powerful members of the community of nations; and elective and responsible
government became subject to the observations and criticisms which wait upon a
great existing fact. It was now perceived that such phrases as
"self-government," and "the power of the people over
themselves," do not express the true state of the case. The
"people" who exercise the power are not always the same people with
those over whom it is exercised; and the "self-government" spoken of
is not the government of each by himself, but of each by all the rest. The will
of the people, moreover, practically means the will of the most numerous or the
most active part of the people; the
majority, or those who succeed in making themselves accepted as the majority;
the people, consequently, may desire
to oppress a part of their number; and precautions are as much needed against
this as against any other abuse of power. The limitation, therefore, of the
power of government over individuals loses none of its importance when the
holders of power are regularly accountable to the community, that is, to the
strongest party therein. This view of things, recommending itself equally to the
intelligence of thinkers and to the inclination of those important classes in
European society to whose real or supposed interests democracy is adverse, has
had no difficulty in establishing itself; and in political speculations
"the tyranny of the majority" is now generally included among the
evils against which society requires to be on its guard.
4
Like other tyrannies, the tyranny of the majority was at first, and is still
vulgarly, held in dread, chiefly as operating through the acts of the public
authorities. But reflecting persons perceived that when society is itself the
tyrant—society collectively, over the separate individuals who compose
it—its means of tyrannizing are not restricted to the acts which it may do by
the hands of its political functionaries. Society can and does execute its own
mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at
all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny
more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not
usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape,
penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul
itself. Protection, therefore, against the tyranny of the magistrate is not
enough: there needs protection also against the tyranny of the prevailing
opinion and feeling; against the tendency of society to impose, by other means
than civil penalties, its own ideas and practices as rules of conduct on those
who dissent from them; to fetter the development, and, if possible, prevent the
formation, of any individuality not in harmony with its ways, and compel all
characters to fashion themselves upon the model of its own. There is a limit to
the legitimate interference of collective opinion with individual independence:
and to find that limit, and maintain it against encroachment, is as
indispensable to a good condition of human affairs, as protection against
political despotism.
5
But
though this proposition is not likely to be contested in general terms, the
practical question, where to place the limit—how to make the fitting
adjustment between individual independence and social control—is a subject on
which nearly everything remains to be done. All that makes existence valuable to
any one, depends on the enforcement of restraints upon the actions of other
people. Some rules of conduct, therefore, must be imposed, by law in the first
place, and by opinion on many things which are not fit subjects for the
operation of law. What these rules should be, is the principal question in human
affairs; but if we except a few of the most obvious cases, it is one of those
which least progress has been made in resolving. No two ages, and scarcely any
two countries, have decided it alike; and the decision of one age or country is
a wonder to another. Yet the people of any given age and country no more suspect
any difficulty in it, than if it were a subject on which mankind had always been
agreed. The rules which obtain among themselves appear to them self-evident and
self-justifying. This all but universal illusion is one of the examples of the
magical influence of custom, which is not only, as the proverb says, a second
nature, but is continually mistaken for the first. The effect of custom, in
preventing any misgiving respecting the rules of conduct which mankind impose on
one another, is all the more complete because the subject is one on which it is
not generally considered necessary that reasons should be given, either by one
person to others, or by each to himself. People are accustomed to believe, and
have been encouraged in the belief by some who aspire to the character of
philosophers, that their feelings, on subjects of this nature, are better than
reasons, and render reasons unnecessary. The practical principle which guides
them to their opinions on the regulation of human conduct, is the feeling in
each person's mind that everybody should be required to act as he, and those
with whom he sympathizes, would like them to act. No one, indeed, acknowledges
to himself that his standard of judgment is his own liking; but an opinion on a
point of conduct, not supported by reasons, can only count as one person's
preference; and if the reasons, when given, are a mere appeal to a similar
preference felt by other people, it is still only many people's liking instead
of one. To an ordinary man, however, his own preference, thus supported, is not
only a perfectly satisfactory reason, but the only one he generally has for any
of his notions of morality, taste, or propriety, which are not expressly written
in his religious creed; and his chief guide in the interpretation even of that.
Men's opinions, accordingly, on what is laudable or blameable, are affected by
all the multifarious causes which influence their wishes in regard to the
conduct of others, and which are as numerous as those which determine their
wishes on any other subject. Sometimes their reason—at other times their
prejudices or superstitions: often their social affections, not seldom their
antisocial ones, their envy or jealousy, their arrogance or contemptuousness:
but most commonly, their desires or fears for themselves—their legitimate or
illegitimate self-interest. Wherever there is an ascendant class, a large
portion of the morality of the country emanates from its class interests, and
its feelings of class superiority. The morality between Spartans and Helots,
between planters and negroes, between princes and subjects, between nobles and
roturiers, between men and women, has been for the most part the creation of
these class interests and feelings: and the sentiments thus generated, react in
turn upon the moral feelings of the members of the ascendant class, in their
relations among themselves. Where, on the other hand, a class, formerly
ascendant, has lost its ascendancy, or where its ascendancy is unpopular, the
prevailing moral sentiments frequently bear the impress of an impatient dislike
of superiority. Another grand determining principle of the rules of conduct,
both in act and forbearance, which have been enforced by law or opinion, has
been the servility of mankind towards the supposed preferences or aversions of
their temporal masters, or of their gods. This servility, though essentially
selfish, is not hypocrisy; it gives rise to perfectly genuine sentiments of
abhorrence; it made men burn magicians and heretics. Among so many baser
influences, the general and obvious interests of society have of course had a
share, and a large one, in the direction of the moral sentiments: less, however,
as a matter of reason, and on their own account, than as a consequence of the
sympathies and antipathies which grew out of them: and sympathies and
antipathies which had little or nothing to do with the interests of society,
have made themselves felt in the establishment of moralities with quite as great
force.
6
The
likings and dislikings of society, or of some powerful portion of it, are thus
the main thing which has practically determined the rules laid down for general
observance, under the penalties of law or opinion. And in general, those who
have been in advance of society in thought and feeling, have left this condition
of things unassailed in principle, however they may have come into conflict with
it in some of its details. They have occupied themselves rather in inquiring
what things society ought to like or dislike, than in questioning whether its
likings or dislikings should be a law to individuals. They preferred
endeavouring to alter the feelings of mankind on the particular points on which
they were themselves heretical, rather than make common cause in defence of
freedom, with heretics generally. The only case in which the higher ground has
been taken on principle and maintained with consistency, by any but an
individual here and there, is that of religious belief: a case instructive in
many ways, and not least so as forming a most striking instance of the
fallibility of what is called the moral sense: for the odium
theologicum, in a sincere bigot, is one of the most unequivocal cases of
moral feeling. Those who first broke the yoke of what called itself the
Universal Church, were in general as little willing to permit difference of
religious opinion as that church itself. But when the heat of the conflict was
over, without giving a complete victory to any party, and each church or sect
was reduced to limit its hopes to retaining possession of the ground it already
occupied; minorities, seeing that they had no chance of becoming majorities,
were under the necessity of pleading to those whom they could not convert, for
permission to differ. It is accordingly on this battle field, almost solely,
that the rights of the individual against society have been asserted on broad
grounds of principle, and the claim of society to exercise authority over
dissentients, openly controverted. The great writers to whom the world owes what
religious liberty it possesses, have mostly asserted freedom of conscience as an
indefeasible right, and denied absolutely that a human being is accountable to
others for his religious belief. Yet so natural to mankind is intolerance in
whatever they really care about, that religious freedom has hardly anywhere been
practically realized, except where religious indifference, which dislikes to
have its peace disturbed by theological quarrels, has added its weight to the
scale. In the minds of almost all religious persons, even in the most tolerant
countries, the duty of toleration is admitted with tacit reserves. One person
will bear with dissent in matters of church government, but not of dogma;
another can tolerate everybody, short of a Papist or an Unitarian; another,
every one who believes in revealed religion; a few extend their charity a little
further, but stop at the belief in a God and in a future state. Wherever the
sentiment of the majority is still genuine and intense, it is found to have
abated little of its claim to be obeyed.
7
In
England, from the peculiar circumstances of our political history, though the
yoke of opinion is perhaps heavier, that of law is lighter, than in most other
countries of Europe; and there is considerable jealousy of direct interference,
by the legislative or the executive power, with private conduct; not so much
from any just regard for the independence of the individual, as from the still
subsisting habit of looking on the government as representing an opposite
interest to the public. The majority have not yet learnt to feel the power of
the government their power, or its opinions their opinions. When they do so,
individual liberty will probably be as much exposed to invasion from the
government, as it already is from public opinion. But, as yet, there is a
considerable amount of feeling ready to be called forth against any attempt of
the law to control individuals in things in which they have not hitherto been
accustomed to be controlled by it; and this with very little discrimination as
to whether the matter is, or is not, within the legitimate sphere of legal
control; insomuch that the feeling, highly salutary on the whole, is perhaps
quite as often misplaced as well grounded in the particular instances of its
application. There is, in fact, no recognized principle by which the propriety
or impropriety of government interference is customarily tested. People decide
according to their personal preferences. Some, whenever they see any good to be
done, or evil to be remedied, would willingly instigate the government to
undertake the business; while others prefer to bear almost any amount of social
evil, rather than add one to the departments of human interests amenable to
governmental control. And men range themselves on one or the other side in any
particular case, according to this general direction of their sentiments; or
according to the degree of interest which they feel in the particular thing
which it is proposed that the government should do, or according to the belief
they entertain that the government would, or would not, do it in the manner they
prefer; but very rarely on account of any opinion to which they consistently
adhere, as to what things are fit to be done by a government. And it seems to me
that in consequence of this absence of rule or principle, one side is at present
as often wrong as the other; the interference of government is, with about equal
frequency, improperly invoked and improperly condemned.
8
The
object of this Essay is to assert one very simple principle, as entitled to
govern absolutely the dealings of society with the individual in the way of
compulsion and control, whether the means used be physical force in the form of
legal penalties, or the moral coercion of public opinion. That principle is,
that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively,
in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is
self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully
exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to
prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a
sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because
it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because,
in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good
reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or
entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in
case he do otherwise. To justify that, the conduct from which it is desired to
deter him, must be calculated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of
the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which
concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is,
of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is
sovereign.
9
It
is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that this doctrine is meant to apply only
to human beings in the maturity of their faculties. We are not speaking of
children, or of young persons below the age which the law may fix as that of
manhood or womanhood. Those who are still in a state to require being taken care
of by others, must be protected against their own actions as well as against
external injury. For the same reason, we may leave out of consideration those
backward states of society in which the race itself may be considered as in its
nonage. The early difficulties in the way of spontaneous progress are so great,
that there is seldom any choice of means for overcoming them; and a ruler full
of the spirit of improvement is warranted in the use of any expedients that will
attain an end, perhaps otherwise unattainable. Despotism is a legitimate mode of
government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement,
and the means justified by actually effecting that end. Liberty, as a principle,
has no application to any state of things anterior to the time when mankind have
become capable of being improved by free and equal discussion. Until then, there
is nothing for them but implicit obedience to an Akbar or a Charlemagne, if they
are so fortunate as to find one. But as soon as mankind have attained the
capacity of being guided to their own improvement by conviction or persuasion (a
period long since reached in all nations with whom we need here concern
ourselves), compulsion, either in the direct form or in that of pains and
penalties for non-compliance, is no longer admissible as a means to their own
good, and justifiable only for the security of others.
10
It
is proper to state that I forego any advantage which could be derived to my
argument from the idea of abstract right, as a thing independent of utility. I
regard utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions; but it must be
utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of man as a
progressive being. Those interests, I contend, authorize the subjection of
individual spontaneity to external control, only in respect to those actions of
each, which concern the interest of other people. If any one does an act hurtful
to others, there is a primâ facie
case for punishing him, by law, or, where legal penalties are not safely
applicable, by general disapprobation. There are also many positive acts for the
benefit of others, which he may rightfully be compelled to perform; such as, to
give evidence in a court of justice; to bear his fair share in the common
defence, or in any other joint work necessary to the interest of the society of
which he enjoys the protection; and to perform certain acts of individual
beneficence, such as saving a fellow-creature's life, or interposing to protect
the defenceless against ill-usage, things which whenever it is obviously a man's
duty to do, he may rightfully be made responsible to society for not doing. A
person may cause evil to others not only by his actions but by his inaction, and
in either case he is justly accountable to them for the injury. The latter case,
it is true, requires a much more cautious exercise of compulsion than the
former. To make any one answerable for doing evil to others, is the rule; to
make him answerable for not preventing evil, is, comparatively speaking, the
exception. Yet there are many cases clear enough and grave enough to justify
that exception. In all things which regard the external relations of the
individual, he is de jure amenable to
those whose interests are concerned, and if need be, to society as their
protector. There are often good reasons for not holding him to the
responsibility; but these reasons must arise from the special expediencies of
the case: either because it is a kind of case in which he is on the whole likely
to act better, when left to his own discretion, than when controlled in any way
in which society have it in their power to control him; or because the attempt
to exercise control would produce other evils, greater than those which it would
prevent. When such reasons as these preclude the enforcement of responsibility,
the conscience of the agent himself should step into the vacant judgment seat,
and protect those interests of others which have no external protection; judging
himself all the more rigidly, because the case does not admit of his being made
accountable to the judgment of his fellow-creatures.
11
But
there is a sphere of action in which society, as distinguished from the
individual, has, if any, only an indirect interest; comprehending all that
portion of a person's life and conduct which affects only himself, or if it also
affects others, only with their free, voluntary, and undeceived consent and
participation. When I say only himself, I mean directly, and in the first
instance: for whatever affects himself, may affect others through himself; and
the objection which may be grounded on this contingency, will receive
consideration in the sequel. This, then, is the appropriate region of human
liberty. It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding
liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and
feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or
speculative, scientific, moral, or theological. The liberty of expressing and
publishing opinions may seem to fall under a different principle, since it
belongs to that part of the conduct of an individual which concerns other
people; but, being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought
itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically
inseparable from it. Secondly, the principle requires liberty of tastes and
pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as
we like, subject to such consequences as may follow: without impediment from our
fellow-creatures, so long as what we do does not harm them, even though they
should think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong. Thirdly, from this liberty
of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination
among individuals; freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to
others: the persons combining being supposed to be of full age, and not forced
or deceived.
12
No
society in which these liberties are not, on the whole, respected, is free,
whatever may be its form of government; and none is completely free in which
they do not exist absolute and unqualified. The only freedom which deserves the
name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not
attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. Each
is the proper guardian of his own health, whether bodily, or mental and
spiritual. Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems
good to themselves, than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest.
13
Though
this doctrine is anything but new, and, to some persons, may have the air of a
truism, there is no doctrine which stands more directly opposed to the general
tendency of existing opinion and practice. Society has expended fully as much
effort in the attempt (according to its lights) to compel people to conform to
its notions of personal, as of social excellence. The ancient commonwealths
thought themselves entitled to practise, and the ancient philosophers
countenanced, the regulation of every part of private conduct by public
authority, on the ground that the State had a deep interest in the whole bodily
and mental discipline of every one of its citizens; a mode of thinking which may
have been admissible in small republics surrounded by powerful enemies, in
constant peril of being subverted by foreign attack or internal commotion, and
to which even a short interval of relaxed energy and self-command might so
easily be fatal, that they could not afford to wait for the salutary permanent
effects of freedom. In the modern world, the greater size of political
communities, and above all, the separation between spiritual and temporal
authority (which placed the direction of men's consciences in other hands than
those which controlled their worldly affairs), prevented so great an
interference by law in the details of private life; but the engines of moral
repression have been wielded more strenuously against divergence from the
reigning opinion in self-regarding, than even in social matters; religion, the
most powerful of the elements which have entered into the formation of moral
feeling, having almost always been governed either by the ambition of a
hierarchy, seeking control over every department of human conduct, or by the
spirit of Puritanism. And some of those modern reformers who have placed
themselves in strongest opposition to the religions of the past, have been noway
behind either churches or sects in their assertion of the right of spiritual
domination: M. Comte, in particular, whose social system, as unfolded in his Systeme
de Politique Positive, aims at establishing (though by moral more than by
legal appliances) a despotism of society over the individual, surpassing
anything contemplated in the political ideal of the most rigid disciplinarian
among the ancient philosophers.
14
Apart
from the peculiar tenets of individual thinkers, there is also in the world at
large an increasing inclination to stretch unduly the powers of society over the
individual, both by the force of opinion and even by that of legislation: and as
the tendency of all the changes taking place in the world is to strengthen
society, and diminish the power of the individual, this encroachment is not one
of the evils which tend spontaneously to disappear, but, on the contrary, to
grow more and more formidable. The disposition of mankind, whether as rulers or
as fellow-citizens, to impose their own opinions and inclinations as a rule of
conduct on others, is so energetically supported by some of the best and by some
of the worst feelings incident to human nature, that it is hardly ever kept
under restraint by anything but want of power; and as the power is not
declining, but growing, unless a strong barrier of moral conviction can be
raised against the mischief, we must expect, in the present circumstances of the
world, to see it increase.
15
It
will be convenient for the argument, if, instead of at once entering upon the
general thesis, we confine ourselves in the first instance to a single branch of
it, on which the principle here stated is, if not fully, yet to a certain point,
recognised by the current opinions. This one branch is the Liberty of Thought:
from which it is impossible to separate the cognate liberty of speaking and of
writing. Although these liberties, to some considerable amount, form part of the
political morality of all countries which profess religious toleration and free
institutions, the grounds, both philosophical and practical, on which they rest,
are perhaps not so familiar to the general mind, nor so thoroughly appreciated
by many even of the leaders of opinion, as might have been expected. Those
grounds, when rightly understood, are of much wider application than to only one
division of the subject, and a thorough consideration of this part of the
question will be found the best introduction to the remainder. Those to whom
nothing which I am about to say will be new, may therefore, I hope, excuse me,
if on a subject which for now three centuries has been so often discussed, I
venture on one discussion more.
On
Liberty. John Stuart Mill.
1806–1873.
Chapter II: Of the Liberty
of Thought and Discussion
THE TIME,
it is to be hoped, is gone by, when any defence would be necessary of the
"liberty of the press" as one of the securities against corrupt or
tyrannical government. No argument, we may suppose, can now be needed, against
permitting a legislature or an executive, not identified in interest with the
people, to prescribe opinions to them, and determine what doctrines or what
arguments they shall be allowed to hear. This aspect of the question, besides,
has been so often and so triumphantly enforced by preceding writers, that it
needs not be specially insisted on in this place. Though the law of England, on
the subject of the press, is as servile to this day as it was in the time of the
Tudors, there is little danger of its being actually put in force against
political discussion, except during some temporary panic, when fear of
insurrection drives ministers and judges from their propriety; 1 and,
speaking generally, it is not, in constitutional countries, to be apprehended,
that the government, whether completely responsible to the people or not, will
often attempt to control the expression of opinion, except when in doing so it
makes itself the organ of the general intolerance of the public. Let us suppose,
therefore, that the government is entirely at one with the people, and never
thinks of exerting any power of coercion unless in agreement with what it
conceives to be their voice. But I deny the right of the people to exercise such
coercion, either by themselves or by their government. The power itself is
illegitimate. The best government has no more title to it than the worst. It is
as noxious, or more noxious, when exerted in accordance with public opinion,
than when in opposition to it. If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion,
and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more
justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be
justified in silencing mankind. Were an opinion a personal possession of no
value except to the owner; if to be obstructed in the enjoyment of it were
simply a private injury, it would make some difference whether the injury was
inflicted only on a few persons or on many. But the peculiar evil of silencing
the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race; posterity as
well as the existing generation; those who dissent from the opinion, still more
than those who hold it. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the
opportunity of exchanging error for truth: if wrong, they lose, what is almost
as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth,
produced by its collision with error.
1
It is necessary to consider separately these two hypotheses, each of which has a
distinct branch of the argument corresponding to it. We can never be sure that
the opinion we are endeavouring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were
sure, stifling it would be an evil still.
2
First:
the opinion which it is attempted to suppress by authority may possibly be true.
Those who desire to suppress it, of course deny its truth; but they are not
infallible. They have no authority to decide the question for all mankind, and
exclude every other person from the means of judging. To refuse a hearing to an
opinion, because they are sure that it is false, is to assume that their
certainty is the same thing as absolute
certainty. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. Its
condemnation may be allowed to rest on this common argument, not the worse for
being common.
3
Unfortunately
for the good sense of mankind, the fact of their fallibility is far from
carrying the weight in their practical judgment, which is always allowed to it
in theory; for while every one well knows himself to be fallible, few think it
necessary to take any precautions against their own fallibility, or admit the
supposition that any opinion, of which they feel very certain, may be one of the
examples of the error to which they acknowledge themselves to be liable.
Absolute princes, or others who are accustomed to unlimited deference, usually
feel this complete confidence in their own opinions on nearly all subjects.
People more happily situated, who sometimes hear their opinions disputed, and
are not wholly unused to be set right when they are wrong, place the same
unbounded reliance only on such of their opinions as are shared by all who
surround them, or to whom they habitually defer: for in proportion to a man's
want of confidence in his own solitary judgment, does he usually repose, with
implicit trust, on the infallibility of "the world" in general. And
the world, to each individual, means the part of it with which he comes in
contact; his party, his sect, his church, his class of society: the man may be
called, by comparison, almost liberal and large-minded to whom it means anything
so comprehensive as his own country or his own age. Nor is his faith in this
collective authority at all shaken by his being aware that other ages,
countries, sects, churches, classes, and parties have thought, and even now
think, the exact reverse. He devolves upon his own world the responsibility of
being in the right against the dissentient worlds of other people; and it never
troubles him that mere accident has decided which of these numerous worlds is
the object of his reliance, and that the same causes which make him a Churchman
in London, would have made him a Buddhist or a Confucian in Pekin. Yet it is as
evident in itself, as any amount of argument can make it, that ages are no more
infallible than individuals; every age having held many opinions which
subsequent ages have deemed not only false but absurd; and it is as certain that
many opinions, now general, will be rejected by future ages, as it is that many,
once general, are rejected by the present.
4
The
objection likely to be made to this argument, would probably take some such form
as the following. There is no greater assumption of infallibility in forbidding
the propagation of error, than in any other thing which is done by public
authority on its own judgment and responsibility. Judgment is given to men that
they may use it. Because it may be used erroneously, are men to be told that
they ought not to use it at all? To prohibit what they think pernicious, is not
claiming exemption from error, but fulfilling the duty incumbent on them,
although fallible, of acting on their conscientious conviction. If we were never
to act on our opinions, because those opinions may be wrong, we should leave all
our interests uncared for, and all our duties unperformed. An objection which
applies to all conduct, can be no valid objection to any conduct in particular.
It is the duty of governments, and of individuals, to form the truest opinions
they can; to form them carefully, and never impose them upon others unless they
are quite sure of being right. But when they are sure (such reasoners may say),
it is not conscientiousness but cowardice to shrink from acting on their
opinions, and allow doctrines which they honestly think dangerous to the welfare
of mankind, either in this life or in another, to be scattered abroad without
restraint, because other people, in less enlightened times, have persecuted
opinions now believed to be true. Let us take care, it may be said, not to make
the same mistake: but governments and nations have made mistakes in other
things, which are not denied to be fit subjects for the exercise of authority:
they have laid on bad taxes, made unjust wars. Ought we therefore to lay on no
taxes, and, under whatever provocation, make no wars? Men, and governments, must
act to the best of their ability. There is no such thing as absolute certainty,
but there is assurance sufficient for the purposes of human life. We may, and
must, assume our opinion to be true for the guidance of our own conduct: and it
is assuming no more when we forbid bad men to pervert society by the propagation
of opinions which we regard as false and pernicious.
5
I
answer, that it is assuming very much more. There is the greatest difference
between presuming an opinion to be true, because, with every opportunity for
contesting it, it has not been refuted, and assuming its truth for the purpose
of not permitting its refutation. Complete liberty of contradicting and
disproving our opinion, is the very condition which justifies us in assuming its
truth for purposes of action; and on no other terms can a being with human
faculties have any rational assurance of being right.
6
When
we consider either the history of opinion, or the ordinary conduct of human
life, to what is it to be ascribed that the one and the other are no worse than
they are? Not certainly to the inherent force of the human understanding; for,
on any matter not self-evident, there are ninety-nine persons totally incapable
of judging of it, for one who is capable; and the capacity of the hundredth
person is only comparative; for the majority of the eminent men of every past
generation held many opinions now known to be erroneous, and did or approved
numerous things which no one will now justify. Why is it, then, that there is on
the whole a preponderance among mankind of rational opinions and rational
conduct? If there really is this preponderance—which there must be unless
human affairs are, and have always been, in an almost desperate state—it is
owing to a quality of the human mind, the source of everything respectable in
man either as an intellectual or as a moral being, namely, that his errors are
corrigible. He is capable of rectifying his mistakes, by discussion and
experience. Not by experience alone. There must be discussion, to show how
experience is to be interpreted. Wrong opinions and practices gradually yield to
fact and argument: but facts and arguments, to produce any effect on the mind,
must be brought before it. Very few facts are able to tell their own story,
without comments to bring out their meaning. The whole strength and value, then,
of human judgment, depending on the one property, that it can be set right when
it is wrong, reliance can be placed on it only when the means of setting it
right are kept constantly at hand. In the case of any person whose judgment is
really deserving of confidence, how has it become so? Because he has kept his
mind open to criticism of his opinions and conduct. Because it has been his
practice to listen to all that could be said against him; to profit by as much
of it as was just, and expound to himself, and upon occasion to others, the
fallacy of what was fallacious. Because he has felt, that the only way in which
a human being can make some approach to knowing the whole of a subject, is by
hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion, and
studying all modes in which it can be looked at by every character of mind. No
wise man ever acquired his wisdom in any mode but this; nor is it in the nature
of human intellect to become wise in any other manner. The steady habit of
correcting and completing his own opinion by collating it with those of others,
so far from causing doubt and hesitation in carrying it into practice, is the
only stable foundation for a just reliance on it: for, being cognisant of all
that can, at least obviously, be said against him, and having taken up his
position against all gainsayers—knowing that he has sought for objections and
difficulties, instead of avoiding them, and has shut out no light which can be
thrown upon the subject from any quarter—he has a right to think his judgment
better than that of any person, or any multitude, who have not gone through a
similar process.
7
It
is not too much to require that what the wisest of mankind, those who are best
entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on
it, should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and
many foolish individuals, called the public. The most intolerant of churches,
the Roman Catholic Church, even at the canonization of a saint, admits, and
listens patiently to, a "devil's advocate." The holiest of men, it
appears, cannot be admitted to posthumous honours, until all that the devil
could say against him is known and weighed. If even the Newtonian philosophy
were not permitted to be questioned, mankind could not feel as complete
assurance of its truth as they now do. The beliefs which we have most warrant
for, have no safeguard to rest on, but a standing invitation to the whole world
to prove them unfounded. If the challenge is not accepted, or is accepted and
the attempt fails, we are far enough from certainty still; but we have done the
best that the existing state of human reason admits of; we have neglected
nothing that could give the truth a chance of reaching us: if the lists are kept
open, we may hope that if there be a better truth, it will be found when the
human mind is capable of receiving it; and in the meantime we may rely on having
attained such approach to truth, as is possible in our own day. This is the
amount of certainty attainable by a fallible being, and this the sole way of
attaining it.
8
Strange
it is, that men should admit the validity of the arguments for free discussion,
but object to their being "pushed to an extreme;" not seeing that
unless the reasons are good for an extreme case, they are not good for any case.
Strange that they should imagine that they are not assuming infallibility, when
they acknowledge that there should be free discussion on all subjects which can
possibly be doubtful, but think that
some particular principle or doctrine should be forbidden to be questioned
because it is so certain, that is,
because they are certain that it is
certain. To call any proposition certain, while there is any one who would deny
its certainty if permitted, but who is not permitted, is to assume that we
ourselves, and those who agree with us, are the judges of certainty, and judges
without hearing the other side.
9
In
the present age—which has been described as "destitute of faith, but
terrified at scepticism"—in which people feel sure, not so much that
their opinions are true, as that they should not know what to do without
them—the claims of an opinion to be protected from public attack are rested
not so much on its truth, as on its importance to society. There are, it is
alleged, certain beliefs, so useful, not to say indispensable to well-being,
that it is as much the duty of governments to uphold those beliefs, as to
protect any other of the interests of society. In a case of such necessity, and
so directly in the line of their duty, something less than infallibility may, it
is maintained, warrant, and even bind, governments, to act on their own opinion,
confirmed by the general opinion of mankind. It is also often argued, and still
oftener thought, that none but bad men would desire to weaken these salutary
beliefs; and there can be nothing wrong, it is thought, in restraining bad men,
and prohibiting what only such men would wish to practise. This mode of thinking
makes the justification of restraints on discussion not a question of the truth
of doctrines, but of their usefulness; and flatters itself by that means to
escape the responsibility of claiming to be an infallible judge of opinions. But
those who thus satisfy themselves, do not perceive that the assumption of
infallibility is merely shifted from one point to another. The usefulness of an
opinion is itself matter of opinion: as disputable, as open to discussion, and
requiring discussion as much, as the opinion itself. There is the same need of
an infallible judge of opinions to decide an opinion to be noxious, as to decide
it to be false, unless the opinion condemned has full opportunity of defending
itself. And it will not do to say that the heretic may be allowed to maintain
the utility or harmlessness of his opinion, though forbidden to maintain its
truth. The truth of an opinion is part of its utility. If we would know whether
or not it is desirable that a proposition should be believed, is it possible to
exclude the consideration of whether or not it is true? In the opinion, not of
bad men, but of the best men, no belief which is contrary to truth can be really
useful: and can you prevent such men from urging that plea, when they are
charged with culpability for denying some doctrine which they are told is
useful, but which they believe to be false? Those who are on the side of
received opinions, never fail to take all possible advantage of this plea; you
do not find them handling the question
of utility as if it could be completely abstracted from that of truth: on the
contrary, it is, above all, because their doctrine is the "truth,"
that the knowledge or the belief of it is held to be so indispensable. There can
be no fair discussion of the question of usefulness, when an argument so vital
may be employed on one side, but not on the other. And in point of fact, when
law or public feeling do not permit the truth of an opinion to be disputed, they
are just as little tolerant of a denial of its usefulness. The utmost they allow
is an extenuation of its absolute necessity, or of the positive guilt of
rejecting it.
10
In
order more fully to illustrate the mischief of denying a hearing to opinions
because we, in our own judgment, have condemned them, it will be desirable to
fix down the discussion to a concrete case; and I choose, by preference, the
cases which are least favourable to me—in which the argument against freedom
of opinion, both on the score of truth and on that of utility, is considered the
strongest. Let the opinions impugned be the belief in a God and in a future
state, or any of the commonly received doctrines of morality. To fight the
battle on such ground, gives a great advantage to an unfair antagonist; since he
will be sure to say (and many who have no desire to be unfair will say it
internally), Are these the doctrines which you do not deem sufficiently certain
to be taken under the protection of law? Is the belief in a God one of the
opinions, to feel sure of which, you hold to be assuming infallibility? But I
must be permitted to observe, that it is not the feeling sure of a doctrine (be
it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility. It is the
undertaking to decide that question for
others, without allowing them to hear what can be said on the contrary side.
And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less, if put forth on the
side of my most solemn convictions. However positive any one's persuasion may
be, not only of the falsity but of the pernicious consequences—not only of the
pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions which I altogether condemn)
the immorality and impiety of an opinion; yet if, in pursuance of that private
judgment, though backed by the public judgment of his country or his
cotemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he
assumes infallibility. And so far from the assumption being less objectionable
or less dangerous because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the
case of all others in which it is most fatal. These are exactly the occasions on
which the men of one generation commit those dreadful mistakes, which excite the
astonishment and horror of posterity. It is among such that we find the
instances memorable in history, when the arm of the law has been employed to
root out the best men and the noblest doctrines; with deplorable success as to
the men, though some of the doctrines have survived to be (as if in mockery)
invoked, in defence of similar conduct towards those who dissent from them,
or from their received interpretation.
11
Mankind
can hardly be too often reminded, that there was once a man named Socrates,
between whom and the legal authorities and public opinion of his time, there
took place a memorable collision. Born in an age and country abounding in
individual greatness, this man has been handed down to us by those who best knew
both him and the age, as the most virtuous man in it; while we
know him as the head and prototype of all subsequent teachers of virtue, the
source equally of the lofty inspiration of Plato and the judicious
utilitarianism of Aristotle, "i maëstri
di color che sanno," the two headsprings of ethical as of all other
philosophy. This acknowledged master of all the eminent thinkers who have since
lived—whose fame, still growing after more than two thousand years, all but
outweighs the whole remainder of the names which make his native city
illustrious—was put to death by his countrymen, after a judicial conviction,
for impiety and immorality. Impiety, in denying the gods recognised by the
State; indeed his accuser asserted (see the Apologia)
that he believed in no gods at all. Immorality, in being, by his doctrines and
instructions, a "corrupter of youth." Of these charges the tribunal,
there is every ground for believing, honestly found him guilty, and condemned
the man who probably of all then born had deserved best of mankind, to be put to
death as a criminal.
12
To
pass from this to the only other instance of judicial iniquity, the mention of
which, after the condemnation of Socrates, would not be an anti-climax: the
event which took place on Calvary rather more than eighteen hundred years ago.
The man who left on the memory of those who witnessed his life and conversation,
such an impression of his moral grandeur, that eighteen subsequent centuries
have done homage to him as the Almighty in person, was ignominiously put to
death, as what? As a blasphemer. Men did not merely mistake their benefactor;
they mistook him for the exact contrary of what he was, and treated him as that
prodigy of impiety, which they themselves are now held to be, for their
treatment of him. The feelings with which mankind now regard these lamentable
transactions, especially the later of the two, render them extremely unjust in
their judgment of the unhappy actors. These were, to all appearance, not bad
men—not worse than men most commonly are, but rather the contrary; men who
possessed in a full, or somewhat more than a full measure, the religious, moral,
and patriotic feelings of their time and people: the very kind of men who, in
all times, our own included, have every chance of passing through life blameless
and respected. The high-priest who rent his garments when the words were
pronounced, which, according to all the ideas of his country, constituted the
blackest guilt, was in all probability quite as sincere in his horror and
indignation, as the generality of respectable and pious men now are in the
religious and moral sentiments they profess; and most of those who now shudder
at his conduct, if they had lived in his time, and been born Jews, would have
acted precisely as he did. Orthodox Christians who are tempted to think that
those who stoned to death the first martyrs must have been worse men than they
themselves are, ought to remember that one of those persecutors was Saint Paul.
13
Let
us add one more example, the most striking of all, if the impressiveness of an
error is measured by the wisdom and virtue of him who falls into it. If ever any
one, possessed of power, had grounds for thinking himself the best and most
enlightened among his cotemporaries, it was the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Absolute monarch of the whole civilized world, he preserved through life not
only the most unblemished justice, but what was less to be expected from his
Stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few failings which are attributed to
him, were all on the side of indulgence: while his writings, the highest ethical
product of the ancient mind, differ scarcely perceptibly, if they differ at all,
from the most characteristic teachings of Christ. This man, a better Christian
in all but the dogmatic sense of the word, than almost any of the ostensibly
Christian sovereigns who have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. Placed at
the summit of all the previous attainments of humanity, with an open, unfettered
intellect, and a character which led him of himself to embody in his moral
writings the Christian ideal, he yet failed to see that Christianity was to be a
good and not an evil to the world, with his duties to which he was so deeply
penetrated. Existing society he knew to be in a deplorable state. But such as it
was, he saw, or thought he saw, that it was held together, and prevented from
being worse, by belief and reverence of the received divinities. As a ruler of
mankind, he deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in pieces; and saw
not how, if its existing ties were removed, any others could be formed which
could again knit it together. The new religion openly aimed at dissolving these
ties: unless, therefore, it was his duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be
his duty to put it down. Inasmuch then as the theology of Christianity did not
appear to him true or of divine origin; inasmuch as this strange history of a
crucified God was not credible to him, and a system which purported to rest
entirely upon a foundation to him so wholly unbelievable, could not be foreseen
by him to be that renovating agency which, after all abatements, it has in fact
proved to be; the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and rulers, under a
solemn sense of duty, authorized the persecution of Christianity. To my mind
this is one of the most tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter thought,
how different a thing the Christianity of the world might have been, if the
Christian faith had been adopted as the religion of the empire under the
auspices of Marcus Aurelius instead of those of Constantine. But it would be
equally unjust to him and false to truth, to deny, that no one plea which can be
urged for punishing anti-Christian teaching, was wanting to Marcus Aurelius for
punishing, as he did, the propagation of Christianity. No Christian more firmly
believes that Atheism is false, and tends to the dissolution of society, than
Marcus Aurelius believed the same things of Christianity; he who, of all men
then living, might have been thought the most capable of appreciating it. Unless
any one who approves of punishment for the promulgation of opinions, flatters
himself that he is a wiser and better man than Marcus Aurelius—more deeply
versed in the wisdom of his time, more elevated in his intellect above it—more
earnest in his search for truth, or more single-minded in his devotion to it
when found;—let him abstain from that assumption of the joint infallibility of
himself and the multitude, which the great Antoninus made with so unfortunate a
result.
14
Aware
of the impossibility of defending the use of punishment for restraining
irreligious opinions, by any argument which will not justify Marcus Antoninus,
the enemies of religious freedom, when hard pressed, occasionally accept this
consequence, and say, with Dr. Johnson, that the persecutors of Christianity
were in the right; that persecution is an ordeal through which truth ought to
pass, and always passes successfully, legal penalties being, in the end,
powerless against truth, though sometimes beneficially effective against
mischievous errors. This is a form of the argument for religious intolerance,
sufficiently remarkable not to be passed without notice.
15
A
theory which maintains that truth may justifiably be persecuted because
persecution cannot possibly do it any harm, cannot be charged with being
intentionally hostile to the reception of new truths; but we cannot commend the
generosity of its dealing with the persons to whom mankind are indebted for
them. To discover to the world something which deeply concerns it, and of which
it was previously ignorant; to prove to it that it had been mistaken on some
vital point of temporal or spiritual interest, is as important a service as a
human being can render to his fellow-creatures, and in certain cases, as in
those of the early Christians and of the Reformers, those who think with Dr.
Johnson believe it to have been the most precious gift which could be bestowed
on mankind. That the authors of such splendid benefits should be requited by
martyrdom; that their reward should be to be dealt with as the vilest of
criminals, is not, upon this theory, a deplorable error and misfortune, for
which humanity should mourn in sackcloth and ashes, but the normal and
justifiable state of things. The propounder of a new truth, according to this
doctrine, should stand, as stood, in the legislation of the Locrians, the
proposer of a new law, with a halter round his neck, to be instantly tightened
if the public assembly did not, on hearing his reasons, then and there adopt his
proposition. People who defend this mode of treating benefactors, cannot be
supposed to set much value on the benefit; and I believe this view of the
subject is mostly confined to the sort of persons who think that new truths may
have been desirable once, but that we have had enough of them now.
16
But,
indeed, the dictum that truth always triumphs over persecution, is one of those
pleasant falsehoods which men repeat after one another till they pass into
commonplaces, but which all experience refutes. History teems with instances of
truth put down by persecution. If not suppressed for ever, it may be thrown back
for centuries. To speak only of religious opinions: the Reformation broke out at
least twenty times before Luther, and was put down. Arnold of Brescia was put
down. Fra Dolcino was put down. Savonarola was put down. The Albigeois were put
down. The Vaudois were put down. The Lollards were put down. The Hussites were
put down. Even after the era of Luther, wherever persecution was persisted in,
it was successful. In Spain, Italy, Flanders, the Austrian empire, Protestantism
was rooted out; and, most likely, would have been so in England, had Queen Mary
lived, or Queen Elizabeth died. Persecution has always succeeded, save where the
heretics were too strong a party to be effectually persecuted. No reasonable
person can doubt that Christianity might have been extirpated in the Roman
Empire. It spread, and became predominant, because the persecutions were only
occasional, lasting but a short time, and separated by long intervals of almost
undisturbed propagandism. It is a piece of idle sentimentality that truth,
merely as truth, has any inherent power denied to error, of prevailing against
the dungeon and the stake. Men are not more zealous for truth than they often
are for error, and a sufficient application of legal or even of social penalties
will generally succeed in stopping the propagation of either. The real advantage
which truth has, consists in this, that when an opinion is true, it may be
extinguished once, twice, or many times, but in the course of ages there will
generally be found persons to rediscover it, until some one of its reappearances
falls on a time when from favourable circumstances it escapes persecution until
it has made such head as to withstand all subsequent attempts to suppress it.
17
It
will be said, that we do not now put to death the introducers of new opinions:
we are not like our fathers who slew the prophets, we even build sepulchres to
them. It is true we no longer put heretics to death; and the amount of penal
infliction which modern feeling would probably tolerate, even against the most
obnoxious opinions, is not sufficient to extirpate them. But let us not flatter
ourselves that we are yet free from the stain even of legal persecution.
Penalties for opinion, or at least for its expression, still exist by law; and
their enforcement is not, even in these times, so unexampled as to make it at
all incredible that they may some day be revived in full force. In the year
1857, at the summer assizes of the county of Cornwall, an unfortunate man, 2
said to be of unexceptionable conduct in all relations of life, was sentenced to
twenty-one months' imprisonment, for uttering, and writing on a gate, some
offensive words concerning Christianity. Within a month of the same time, at the
Old Bailey, two persons, on two separate occasions, 3 were rejected as
jurymen, and one of them grossly insulted by the judge and by one of the
counsel, because they honestly declared that they had no theological belief; and
a third, a foreigner, 4 for the same reason, was denied justice against a
thief. This refusal of redress took place in virtue of the legal doctrine, that
no person can be allowed to give evidence in a court of justice, who does not
profess belief in a God (any god is sufficient) and in a future state; which is
equivalent to declaring such persons to be outlaws, excluded from the protection
of the tribunals; who may not only be robbed or assaulted with impunity, if no
one but themselves, or persons of similar opinions, be present, but any one else
may be robbed or assaulted with impunity, if the proof of the fact depends on
their evidence. The assumption on which this is grounded, is that the oath is
worthless, of a person who does not believe in a future state; a proposition
which betokens much ignorance of history in those who assent to it (since it is
historically true that a large proportion of infidels in all ages have been
persons of distinguished integrity and honor); and would be maintained by no one
who had the smallest conception how many of the persons in greatest repute with
the world, both for virtues and for attainments, are well known, at least to
their intimates, to be unbelievers. The rule, besides, is suicidal, and cuts
away its own foundation. Under pretence that atheists must be liars, it admits
the testimony of all atheists who are willing to lie, and rejects only those who
brave the obloquy of publicly confessing a detested creed rather than affirm a
falsehood. A rule thus self-convicted of absurdity so far as regards its
professed purpose, can be kept in force only as a badge of hatred, a relic of
persecution; a persecution, too, having the peculiarity, that the qualification
for undergoing it, is the being clearly proved not to deserve it. The rule, and
the theory it implies, are hardly less insulting to believers than to infidels.
For if he who does not believe in a future state, necessarily lies, it follows
that they who do believe are only prevented from lying, if prevented they are,
by the fear of hell. We will not do the authors and abettors of the rule the
injury of supposing, that the conception which they have formed of Christian
virtue is drawn from their own consciousness.
18
These,
indeed, are but rags and remnants of persecution, and may be thought to be not
so much an indication of the wish to persecute, as an example of that very
frequent infirmity of English minds, which makes them take a preposterous
pleasure in the assertion of a bad principle, when they are no longer bad enough
to desire to carry it really into practice. But unhappily there is no security
in the state of the public mind, that the suspension of worse forms of legal
persecution, which has lasted for about the space of a generation, will
continue. In this age the quiet surface of routine is as often ruffled by
attempts to resuscitate past evils, as to introduce new benefits. What is
boasted of at the present time as the revival of religion, is always, in narrow
and uncultivated minds, at least as much the revival of bigotry; and where there
is the strong permanent leaven of intolerance in the feelings of a people, which
at all times abides in the middle classes of this country, it needs but little
to provoke them into actively persecuting those whom they have never ceased to
think proper objects of persecution. 5 For it is this—it is the
opinions men entertain, and the feelings they cherish, respecting those who
disown the beliefs they deem important, which makes this country not a place of
mental freedom. For a long time past, the chief mischief of the legal penalties
is that they strengthen the social stigma. It is that stigma which is really
effective, and so effective is it, that the profession of opinions which are
under the ban of society is much less common in England, than is, in many other
countries, the avowal of those which incur risk of judicial punishment. In
respect to all persons but those whose pecuniary circumstances make them
independent of the good will of other people, opinion, on this subject, is as
efficacious as law; men might as well be imprisoned, as excluded from the means
of earning their bread. Those whose bread is already secured, and who desire no
favours from men in power, or from bodies of men, or from the public, have
nothing to fear from the open avowal of any opinions, but to be ill-thought of
and ill-spoken of, and this it ought not to require a very heroic mould to
enable them to bear. There is no room for any appeal ad misericordiam in behalf of such persons. But though we do not now
inflict so much evil on those who think differently from us, as it was formerly
our custom to do, it may be that we do ourselves as much evil as ever by our
treatment of them. Socrates was put to death, but the Socratic philosophy rose
like the sun in heaven, and spread its illumination over the whole intellectual
firmament. Christians were cast to the lions, but the Christian church grew up a
stately and spreading tree, overtopping the older and less vigorous growths, and
stifling them by its shade. Our merely social intolerance kills no one, roots
out no opinions, but induces men to disguise them, or to abstain from any active
effort for their diffusion. With us, heretical opinions do not perceptibly gain,
or even lose, ground in each decade or generation; they never blaze out far and
wide, but continue to smoulder in the narrow circles of thinking and studious
persons among whom they originate, without ever lighting up the general affairs
of mankind with either a true or a deceptive light. And thus is kept up a state
of things very satisfactory to some minds, because, without the unpleasant
process of fining or imprisoning anybody, it maintains all prevailing opinions
outwardly undisturbed, while it does not absolutely interdict the exercise of
reason by dissentients afflicted with the malady of thought. A convenient plan
for having peace in the intellectual world, and keeping all things going on
therein very much as they do already. But the price paid for this sort of
intellectual pacification, is the sacrifice of the entire moral courage of the
human mind. A state of things in which a large portion of the most active and
inquiring intellects find it advisable to keep the general principles and
grounds of their convictions within their own breasts, and attempt, in what they
address to the public, to fit as much as they can of their own conclusions to
premises which they have internally renounced, cannot send forth the open,
fearless characters, and logical, consistent intellects who once adorned the
thinking world. The sort of men who can be looked for under it, are either mere
conformers to commonplace, or time-servers for truth, whose arguments on all
great subjects are meant for their hearers, and are not those which have
convinced themselves. Those who avoid this alternative, do so by narrowing their
thoughts and interest to things which can be spoken of without venturing within
the region of principles, that is, to small practical matters, which would come
right of themselves, if but the minds of mankind were strengthened and enlarged,
and which will never be made effectually right until then: while that which
would strengthen and enlarge men's minds, free and daring speculation on the
highest subjects, is abandoned.
19
Those
in whose eyes this reticence on the part of heretics is no evil, should consider
in the first place, that in consequence of it there is never any fair and
thorough discussion of heretical opinions; and that such of them as could not
stand such a discussion, though they may be prevented from spreading, do not
disappear. But it is not the minds of heretics that are deteriorated most, by
the ban placed on all inquiry which does not end in the orthodox conclusions.
The greatest harm done is to those who are not heretics, and whose whole mental
development is cramped, and their reason cowed, by the fear of heresy. Who can
compute what the world loses in the multitude of promising intellects combined
with timid characters, who dare not follow out any bold, vigorous, independent
train of thought, lest it should land them in something which would admit of
being considered irreligious or immoral? Among them we may occasionally see some
man of deep conscientiousness, and subtle and refined understanding, who spends
a life in sophisticating with an intellect which he cannot silence, and exhausts
the resources of ingenuity in attempting to reconcile the promptings of his
conscience and reason with orthodoxy, which yet he does not, perhaps, to the end
succeed in doing. No one can be a great thinker who does not recognise, that as
a thinker it is his first duty to follow his intellect to whatever conclusions
it may lead. Truth gains more even by the errors of one who, with due study and
preparation, thinks for himself, than by the true opinions of those who only
hold them because they do not suffer themselves to think. Not that it is solely,
or chiefly, to form great thinkers, that freedom of thinking is required. On the
contrary, it is as much and even more indispensable, to enable average human
beings to attain the mental stature which they are capable of. There have been,
and may again be, great individual thinkers, in a general atmosphere of mental
slavery. But there never has been, nor ever will be, in that atmosphere, an
intellectually active people. When any people has made a temporary approach to
such a character, it has been because the dread of heterodox speculation was for
a time suspended. Where there is a tacit convention that principles are not to
be disputed; where the discussion of the greatest questions which can occupy
humanity is considered to be closed, we cannot hope to find that generally high
scale of mental activity which has made some periods of history so remarkable.
Never when controversy avoided the subjects which are large and important enough
to kindle enthusiasm, was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations,
and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect
to something of the dignity of thinking beings. Of such we have had an example
in the condition of Europe during the times immediately following the
Reformation; another, though limited to the Continent and to a more cultivated
class, in the speculative movement of the latter half of the eighteenth century;
and a third, of still briefer duration, in the intellectual fermentation of
Germany during the Goethian and Fichtean period. These periods differed widely
in the particular opinions which they developed; but were alike in this, that
during all three the yoke of authority was broken. In each, an old mental
despotism had been thrown off, and no new one had yet taken its place. The
impulse given at these three periods has made Europe what it now is. Every
single improvement which has taken place either in the human mind or in
institutions, may be traced distinctly to one or other of them. Appearances have
for some time indicated that all three impulses are well nigh spent; and we can
expect no fresh start, until we again assert our mental freedom.
20
Let
us now pass to the second division of the argument, and dismissing the
supposition that any of the received opinions may be false, let us assume them
to be true, and examine into the worth of the manner in which they are likely to
be held, when their truth is not freely and openly canvassed. However
unwillingly a person who has a strong opinion may admit the possibility that his
opinion may be false, he ought to be moved by the consideration that however
true it may be, if it is not fully, frequently, and fearlessly discussed, it
will be held as a dead dogma, not a living truth.
21
There
is a class of persons (happily not quite so numerous as formerly) who think it
enough if a person assents undoubtingly to what they think true, though he has
no knowledge whatever of the grounds of the opinion, and could not make a
tenable defence of it against the most superficial objections. Such persons, if
they can once get their creed taught from authority, naturally think that no
good, and some harm, comes of its being allowed to be questioned. Where their
influence prevails, they make it nearly impossible for the received opinion to
be rejected wisely and considerately, though it may still be rejected rashly and
ignorantly; for to shut out discussion entirely is seldom possible, and when it
once gets in, beliefs not grounded on conviction are apt to give way before the
slightest semblance of an argument. Waving, however, this possibility—assuming
that the true opinion abides in the mind, but abides as a prejudice, a belief
independent of, and proof against, argument—this is not the way in which truth
ought to be held by a rational being. This is not knowing the truth. Truth, thus
held, is but one superstition the more, accidentally clinging to the words which
enunciate a truth.
22
If
the intellect and judgment of mankind ought to be cultivated, a thing which
Protestants at least do not deny, on what can these faculties be more
appropriately exercised by any one, than on the things which concern him so much
that it is considered necessary for him to hold opinions on them? If the
cultivation of the understanding consists in one thing more than in another, it
is surely in learning the grounds of one's own opinions. Whatever people
believe, on subjects on which it is of the first importance to believe rightly,
they ought to be able to defend against at least the common objections. But,
some one may say, "Let them be taught
the grounds of their opinions. It does not follow that opinions must be merely
parroted because they are never heard controverted. Persons who learn geometry
do not simply commit the theorems to memory, but understand and learn likewise
the demonstrations; and it would be absurd to say that they remain ignorant of
the grounds of geometrical truths, because they never hear any one deny, and
attempt to disprove them." Undoubtedly: and such teaching suffices on a
subject like mathematics, where there is nothing at all to be said on the wrong
side of the question. The peculiarity of the evidence of mathematical truths is,
that all the argument is on one side. There are no objections, and no answers to
objections. But on every subject on which difference of opinion is possible, the
truth depends on a balance to be struck between two sets of conflicting reasons.
Even in natural philosophy, there is always some other explanation possible of
the same facts; some geocentric theory instead of heliocentric, some phlogiston
instead of oxygen; and it has to be shown why that other theory cannot be the
true one: and until this is shown, and until we know how it is shown, we do not
understand the grounds of our opinion. But when we turn to subjects infinitely
more complicated, to morals, religion, politics, social relations, and the
business of life, three-fourths of the arguments for every disputed opinion
consist in dispelling the appearances which favour some opinion different from
it. The greatest orator, save one, of antiquity, has left it on record that he
always studied his adversary's case with as great, if not with still greater,
intensity than even his own. What Cicero practised as the means of forensic
success, requires to be imitated by all who study any subject in order to arrive
at the truth. He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that.
His reasons may be good, and no one may have been able to refute them. But if he
is equally unable to refute the reasons on the opposite side; if he does not so
much as know what they are, he has no ground for preferring either opinion. The
rational position for him would be suspension of judgment, and unless he
contents himself with that, he is either led by authority, or adopts, like the
generality of the world, the side to which he feels most inclination. Nor is it
enough that he should hear the arguments of adversaries from his own teachers,
presented as they state them, and accompanied by what they offer as refutations.
That is not the way to do justice to the arguments, or bring them into real
contact with his own mind. He must be able to hear them from persons who
actually believe them; who defend them in earnest, and do their very utmost for
them. He must know them in their most plausible and persuasive form; he must
feel the whole force of the difficulty which the true view of the subject has to
encounter and dispose of; else he will never really possess himself of the
portion of truth which meets and removes that difficulty. Ninety-nine in a
hundred of what are called educated men are in this condition; even of those who
can argue fluently for their opinions. Their conclusion may be true, but it
might be false for anything they know: they have never thrown themselves into
the mental position of those who think differently from them, and considered
what such persons may have to say; and consequently they do not, in any proper
sense of the word, know the doctrine which they themselves profess. They do not
know those parts of it which explain and justify the remainder; the
considerations which show that a fact which seemingly conflicts with another is
reconcilable with it, or that, of two apparently strong reasons, one and not the
other ought to be preferred. All that part of the truth which turns the scale,
and decides the judgment of a completely informed mind, they are strangers to;
nor is it ever really known, but to those who have attended equally and
impartially to both sides, and endeavoured to see the reasons of both in the
strongest light. So essential is this discipline to a real understanding of
moral and human subjects, that if opponents of all important truths do not
exist, it is indispensable to imagine them, and supply them with the strongest
arguments which the most skilful devil's advocate can conjure up.
23
To
abate the force of these considerations, an enemy of free discussion may be
supposed to say, that there is no necessity for mankind in general to know and
understand all that can be said against or for their opinions by philosophers
and theologians. That it is not needful for common men to be able to expose all
the misstatements or fallacies of an ingenious opponent. That it is enough if
there is always somebody capable of answering them, so that nothing likely to
mislead uninstructed persons remains unrefuted. That simple minds, having been
taught the obvious grounds of the truths inculcated on them, may trust to
authority for the rest, and being aware that they have neither knowledge nor
talent to resolve every difficulty which can be raised, may repose in the
assurance that all those which have been raised have been or can be answered, by
those who are specially trained to the task.
24
Conceding
to this view of the subject the utmost that can be claimed for it by those most
easily satisfied with the amount of understanding of truth which ought to
accompany the belief of it; even so, the argument for free discussion is no way
weakened. For even this doctrine acknowledges that mankind ought to have a
rational assurance that all objections have been satisfactorily answered; and
how are they to be answered if that which requires to be answered is not spoken?
or how can the answer be known to be satisfactory, if the objectors have no
opportunity of showing that it is unsatisfactory? If not the public, at least
the philosophers and theologians who are to resolve the difficulties, must make
themselves familiar with those difficulties in their most puzzling form; and
this cannot be accomplished unless they are freely stated, and placed in the
most advantageous light which they admit of. The Catholic Church has its own way
of dealing with this embarrassing problem. It makes a broad separation between
those who can be permitted to receive its doctrines on conviction, and those who
must accept them on trust. Neither, indeed, are allowed any choice as to what
they will accept; but the clergy, such at least as can be fully confided in, may
admissibly and meritoriously make themselves acquainted with the arguments of
opponents, in order to answer them, and may, therefore, read heretical books;
the laity, not unless by special permission, hard to be obtained. This
discipline recognises a knowledge of the enemy's case as beneficial to the
teachers, but finds means, consistent with this, of denying it to the rest of
the world: thus giving to the élite
more mental culture, though not more mental freedom, than it allows to the mass.
By this device it succeeds in obtaining the kind of mental superiority which its
purposes require; for though culture without freedom never made a large and
liberal mind, it can make a clever nisi
prius advocate of a cause. But in countries professing Protestantism, this
resource is denied; since Protestants hold, at least in theory, that the
responsibility for the choice of a religion must be borne by each for himself,
and cannot be thrown off upon teachers. Besides, in the present state of the
world, it is practically impossible that writings which are read by the
instructed can be kept from the uninstructed. If the teachers of mankind are to
be cognisant of all that they ought to know, everything must be free to be
written and published without restraint.
25
If,
however, the mischievous operation of the absence of free discussion, when the
received opinions are true, were confined to leaving men ignorant of the grounds
of those opinions, it might be thought that this, if an intellectual, is no
moral evil, and does not affect the worth of the opinions, regarded in their
influence on the character. The fact, however, is, that not only the grounds of
the opinion are forgotten in the absence of discussion, but too often the
meaning of the opinion itself. The words which convey it, cease to suggest
ideas, or suggest only a small portion of those they were originally employed to
communicate. Instead of a vivid conception and a living belief, there remain
only a few phrases retained by rote; or, if any part, the shell and husk only of
the meaning is retained, the finer essence being lost. The great chapter in
human history which this fact occupies and fills, cannot be too earnestly
studied and meditated on.
26
It
is illustrated in the experience of almost all ethical doctrines and religious
creeds. They are all full of meaning and vitality to those who originate them,
and to the direct disciples of the originators. Their meaning continues to be
felt in undiminished strength, and is perhaps brought out into even fuller
consciousness, so long as the struggle lasts to give the doctrine or creed an
ascendancy over other creeds. At last it either prevails, and becomes the
general opinion, or its progress stops; it keeps possession of the ground it has
gained, but ceases to spread further. When either of these results has become
apparent, controversy on the subject flags, and gradually dies away. The
doctrine has taken its place, if not as a received opinion, as one of the
admitted sects or divisions of opinion: those who hold it have generally
inherited, not adopted it; and conversion from one of these doctrines to
another, being now an exceptional fact, occupies little place in the thoughts of
their professors. Instead of being, as at first, constantly on the alert either
to defend themselves against the world, or to bring the world over to them, they
have subsided into acquiescence, and neither listen, when they can help it, to
arguments against their creed, nor trouble dissentients (if there be such) with
arguments in its favour. From this time may usually be dated the decline in the
living power of the doctrine. We often hear the teachers of all creeds lamenting
the difficulty of keeping up in the minds of believers a lively apprehension of
the truth which they nominally recognise, so that it may penetrate the feelings,
and acquire a real mastery over the conduct. No such difficulty is complained of
while the creed is still fighting for its existence: even the weaker combatants
then know and feel what they are fighting for, and the difference between it and
other doctrines; and in that period of every creed's existence, not a few
persons may be found, who have realized its fundamental principles in all the
forms of thought, have weighed and considered them in all their important
bearings, and have experienced the full effect on the character, which belief in
that creed ought to produce in a mind thoroughly imbued with it. But when it has
come to be an hereditary creed, and to be received passively, not
actively—when the mind is no longer compelled, in the same degree as at first,
to exercise its vital powers on the questions which its belief presents to it,
there is a progressive tendency to forget all of the belief except the
formularies, or to give it a dull and torpid assent, as if accepting it on trust
dispensed with the necessity of realizing it in consciousness, or testing it by
personal experience; until it almost ceases to connect itself at all with the
inner life of the human being. Then are seen the cases, so frequent in this age
of the world as almost to form the majority, in which the creed remains as it
were outside the mind, incrusting and petrifying it against all other influences
addressed to the higher parts of our nature; manifesting its power by not
suffering any fresh and living conviction to get in, but itself doing nothing
for the mind or heart, except standing sentinel over them to keep them vacant.
27
To
what an extent doctrines intrinsically fitted to make the deepest impression
upon the mind may remain in it as dead beliefs, without being ever realized in
the imagination, the feelings, or the understanding, is exemplified by the
manner in which the majority of believers hold the doctrines of Christianity. By
Christianity I here mean what is accounted such by all churches and sects—the
maxims and precepts contained in the New Testament. These are considered sacred,
and accepted as laws, by all professing Christians. Yet it is scarcely too much
to say that not one Christian in a thousand guides or tests his individual
conduct by reference to those laws. The standard to which he does refer it, is
the custom of his nation, his class, or his religious profession. He has thus,
on the one hand, a collection of ethical maxims, which he believes to have been
vouchsafed to him by infallible wisdom as rules for his government; and on the
other, a set of every-day judgments and practices, which go a certain length
with some of those maxims, not so great a length with others, stand in direct
opposition to some, and are, on the whole, a compromise between the Christian
creed and the interests and suggestions of worldly life. To the first of these
standards he gives his homage; to the other his real allegiance. All Christians
believe that the blessed are the poor and humble, and those who are ill-used by
the world; that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle
than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven; that they should judge not,
lest they be judged; that they should swear not at all; that they should love
their neighbour as themselves; that if one take their cloak, they should give
him their coat also; that they should take no thought for the morrow; that if
they would be perfect, they should sell all that they have and give it to the
poor. They are not insincere when they say that they believe these things. They
do believe them, as people believe what they have always heard lauded and never
discussed. But in the sense of that living belief which regulates conduct, they
believe these doctrines just up to the point to which it is usual to act upon
them. The doctrines in their integrity are serviceable to pelt adversaries with;
and it is understood that they are to be put forward (when possible) as the
reasons for whatever people do that they think laudable. But any one who
reminded them that the maxims require an infinity of things which they never
even think of doing, would gain nothing but to be classed among those very
unpopular characters who affect to be better than other people. The doctrines
have no hold on ordinary believers—are not a power in their minds. They have
an habitual respect for the sound of them, but no feeling which spreads from the
words to the things signified, and forces the mind to take them in, and make them conform to the formula. Whenever conduct is
concerned, they look round for Mr. A and B to direct them how far to go in
obeying Christ.
28
Now
we may be well assured that the case was not thus, but far otherwise, with the
early Christians. Had it been thus, Christianity never would have expanded from
an obscure sect of the despised Hebrews into the religion of the Roman empire.
When their enemies said, "See how these Christians love one another"
(a remark not likely to be made by anybody now), they assuredly had a much
livelier feeling of the meaning of their creed than they have ever had since.
And to this cause, probably, it is chiefly owing that Christianity now makes so
little progress in extending its domain, and after eighteen centuries, is still
nearly confined to Europeans and the descendants of Europeans. Even with the
strictly religious, who are much in earnest about their doctrines, and attach a
greater amount of meaning to many of them than people in general, it commonly
happens that the part which is thus comparatively active in their minds is that
which was made by Calvin, or Knox, or some such person much nearer in character
to themselves. The sayings of Christ coexist passively in their minds, producing
hardly any effect beyond what is caused by mere listening to words so amiable
and bland. There are many reasons, doubtless, why doctrines which are the badge
of a sect retain more of their vitality than those common to all recognised
sects, and why more pains are taken by teachers to keep their meaning alive; but
one reason certainly is, that the peculiar doctrines are more questioned, and
have to be oftener defended against open gainsayers. Both teachers and learners
go to sleep at their post, as soon as there is no enemy in the field.
29
The
same thing holds true, generally speaking, of all traditional doctrines—those
of prudence and knowledge of life, as well as of morals or religion. All
languages and literatures are full of general observations on life, both as to
what it is, and how to conduct oneself in it; observations which everybody
knows, which everybody repeats, or hears with acquiescence, which are received
as truisms, yet of which most people first truly learn the meaning, when
experience, generally of a painful kind, has made it a reality to them. How
often, when smarting under some unforeseen misfortune or disappointment, does a
person call to mind some proverb or common saying, familiar to him all his life,
the meaning of which, if he had ever before felt it as he does now, would have
saved him from the calamity. There are indeed reasons for this, other than the
absence of discussion: there are many truths of which the full meaning cannot
be realized, until personal experience has brought it home. But much more of the
meaning even of these would have been understood, and what was understood would
have been far more deeply impressed on the mind, if the man had been accustomed
to hear it argued pro and con
by people who did understand it. The fatal tendency of mankind to leave off
thinking about a thing when it is no longer doubtful, is the cause of half their
errors. A contemporary author has well spoken of "the deep slumber of a
decided opinion."
30
But
what! (it may be asked) Is the absence of unanimity an indispensable condition
of true knowledge? Is it necessary that some part of mankind should persist in
error, to enable any to realize the truth? Does a belief cease to be real and
vital as soon as it is generally received—and is a proposition never
thoroughly understood and felt unless some doubt of it remains? As soon as
mankind have unanimously accepted a truth, does the truth perish within them?
The highest aim and best result of improved intelligence, it has hitherto been
thought, is to unite mankind more and more in the acknowledgment of all
important truths: and does the intelligence only last as long as it has not
achieved its object? Do the fruits of conquest perish by the very completeness
of the victory?
31
I
affirm no such thing. As mankind improve, the number of doctrines which are no
longer disputed or doubted will be constantly on the increase: and the
well-being of mankind may almost be measured by the number and gravity of the
truths which have reached the point of being uncontested. The cessation, on one
question after another, of serious controversy, is one of the necessary
incidents of the consolidation of opinion; a consolidation as salutary in the
case of true opinions, as it is dangerous and noxious when the opinions are
erroneous. But though this gradual narrowing of the bounds of diversity of
opinion is necessary in both senses of the term, being at once inevitable and
indispensable, we are not therefore obliged to conclude that all its
consequences must be beneficial. The loss of so important an aid to the
intelligent and living apprehension of a truth, as is afforded by the necessity
of explaining it to, or defending it against, opponents, though not sufficient
to outweigh, is no trifling drawback from, the benefit of its universal
recognition. Where this advantage can no longer be had, I confess I should like
to see the teachers of mankind endeavouring to provide a substitute for it; some
contrivance for making the difficulties of the question as present to the
learner's consciousness, as if they were pressed upon him by a dissentient
champion, eager for his conversion.
32
But
instead of seeking contrivances for this purpose, they have lost those they
formerly had. The Socratic dialectics, so magnificently exemplified in the
dialogues of Plato, were a contrivance of this description. They were
essentially a negative discussion of the great questions of philosophy and life,
directed with consummate skill to the purpose of convincing any one who had
merely adopted the commonplaces of received opinion, that he did not understand
the subject—that he as yet attached no definite meaning to the doctrines he
professed; in order that, becoming aware of his ignorance, he might be put in
the way to attain a stable belief, resting on a clear apprehension both of the
meaning of doctrines and of their evidence. The school disputations of the
middle ages had a somewhat similar object. They were intended to make sure that
the pupil understood his own opinion, and (by necessary correlation) the opinion
opposed to it, and could enforce the grounds of the one and confute those of the
other. These last-mentioned contests had indeed the incurable defect, that the
premises appealed to were taken from authority, not from reason; and, as a
discipline to the mind, they were in every respect inferior to the powerful
dialectics which formed the intellects of the "Socratici viri:" but
the modern mind owes far more to both than it is generally willing to admit, and
the present modes of education contain nothing which in the smallest degree
supplies the place either of the one or of the other. A person who derives all
his instruction from teachers or books, even if he escape the besetting
temptation of contenting himself with cram, is under no compulsion to hear both
sides; accordingly it is far from a frequent accomplishment, even among
thinkers, to know both sides; and the weakest part of what everybody says in
defence of his opinion, is what he intends as a reply to antagonists. It is the
fashion of the present time to disparage negative logic—that which points out
weaknesses in theory or errors in practice, without establishing positive
truths. Such negative criticism would indeed be poor enough as an ultimate
result; but as a means to attaining any positive knowledge or conviction worthy
the name, it cannot be valued too highly; and until people are again
systematically trained to it, there will be few great thinkers, and a low
general average of intellect, in any but the mathematical and physical
departments of speculation. On any other subject no one's opinions deserve the
name of knowledge, except so far as he has either had forced upon him by others,
or gone through of himself, the same mental process which would have been
required of him in carrying on an active controversy with opponents. That,
therefore, which when absent, it is so indispensable, but so difficult, to
create, how worse than absurd is it to forego, when spontaneously offering
itself! If there are any persons who contest a received opinion, or who will do
so if law or opinion will let them, let us thank them for it, open our minds to
listen to them, and rejoice that there is some one to do for us what we
otherwise ought, if we have any regard for either the certainty or the vitality
of our convictions, to do with much greater labor for ourselves.
33
It
still remains to speak of one of the principal causes which make diversity of
opinion advantageous, and will continue to do so until mankind shall have
entered a stage of intellectual advancement which at present seems at an
incalculable distance. We have hitherto considered only two possibilities: that
the received opinion may be false, and some other opinion, consequently, true;
or that, the received opinion being true, a conflict with the opposite error is
essential to a clear apprehension and deep feeling of its truth. But there is a
commoner case than either of these; when the conflicting doctrines, instead of
being one true and the other false, share the truth between them; and the
nonconforming opinion is needed to supply the remainder of the truth, of which
the received doctrine embodies only a part. Popular opinions, on subjects not
palpable to sense, are often true, but seldom or never the whole truth. They are
a part of the truth; sometimes a greater, sometimes a smaller part, but
exaggerated, distorted, and disjoined from the truths by which they ought to be
accompanied and limited. Heretical opinions, on the other hand, are generally
some of these suppressed and neglected truths, bursting the bonds which kept
them down, and either seeking reconciliation with the truth contained in the
common opinion, or fronting it as enemies, and setting themselves up, with
similar exclusiveness, as the whole truth. The latter case is hitherto the most
frequent, as, in the human mind, one-sidedness has always been the rule, and
many-sidedness the exception. Hence, even in revolutions of opinion, one part of
the truth usually sets while another rises. Even progress, which ought to
superadd, for the most part only substitutes, one partial and incomplete truth
for another; improvement consisting chiefly in this, that the new fragment of
truth is more wanted, more adapted to the needs of the time, than that which it
displaces. Such being the partial character of prevailing opinions, even when
resting on a true foundation, every opinion which embodies somewhat of the
portion of truth which the common opinion omits, ought to be considered
precious, with whatever amount of error and confusion that truth may be blended.
No sober judge of human affairs will feel bound to be indignant because those
who force on our notice truths which we should otherwise have overlooked,
overlook some of those which we see. Rather, he will think that so long as
popular truth is one-sided, it is more desirable than otherwise that unpopular
truth should have one-sided asserters too; such being usually the most
energetic, and the most likely to compel reluctant attention to the fragment of
wisdom which they proclaim as if it were the whole.
34
Thus,
in the eighteenth century, when nearly all the instructed, and all those of the
uninstructed who were led by them, were lost in admiration of what is called
civilization, and of the marvels of modern science, literature, and philosophy,
and while greatly overrating the amount of unlikeness between the men of modern
and those of ancient times, indulged the belief that the whole of the difference
was in their own favour; with what a salutary shock did the paradoxes of
Rousseau explode like bombshells in the midst, dislocating the compact mass of
one-sided opinion, and forcing its elements to recombine in a better form and
with additional ingredients. Not that the current opinions were on the whole
farther from the truth than Rousseau's were; on the contrary, they were nearer
to it; they contained more of positive truth, and very much less of error.
Nevertheless there lay in Rousseau's doctrine, and has floated down the stream
of opinion along with it, a considerable amount of exactly those truths which
the popular opinion wanted; and these are the deposit which was left behind when
the flood subsided. The superior worth of simplicity of life, the enervating and
demoralizing effect of the trammels and hypocrisies of artificial society, are
ideas which have never been entirely absent from cultivated minds since Rousseau
wrote; and they will in time produce their due effect, though at present needing
to be asserted as much as ever, and to be asserted by deeds, for words, on this
subject, have nearly exhausted their power.
35
In
politics, again, it is almost a commonplace, that a party of order or stability,
and a party of progress or reform, are both necessary elements of a healthy
state of political life; until the one or the other shall have so enlarged its
mental grasp as to be a party equally of order and of progress, knowing and
distinguishing what is fit to be preserved from what ought to be swept away.
Each of these modes of thinking derives its utility from the deficiencies of the
other; but it is in a great measure the opposition of the other that keeps each
within the limits of reason and sanity. Unless opinions favourable to democracy
and to aristocracy, to property and to equality, to co-operation and to
competition, to luxury and to abstinence, to sociality and individuality, to
liberty and discipline, and all the other standing antagonisms of practical
life, are expressed with equal freedom, and enforced and defended with equal
talent and energy, there is no chance of both elements obtaining their due; one
scale is sure to go up, and the other down. Truth, in the great practical
concerns of life, is so much a question of the reconciling and combining of
opposites, that very few have minds sufficiently capacious and impartial to make
the adjustment with an approach to correctness, and it has to be made by the
rough process of a struggle between combatants fighting under hostile banners.
On any of the great open questions just enumerated, if either of the two
opinions has a better claim than the other, not merely to be tolerated, but to
be encouraged and countenanced, it is the one which happens at the particular
time and place to be in a minority. That is the opinion which, for the time
being, represents the neglected interests, the side of human well-being which is
in danger of obtaining less than its share. I am aware that there is not, in
this country, any intolerance of differences of opinion on most of these topics.
They are adduced to show, by admitted and multiplied examples, the universality
of the fact, that only through diversity of opinion is there, in the existing
state of human intellect, a chance of fair play to all sides of the truth. When
there are persons to be found, who form an exception to the apparent unanimity
of the world on any subject, even if the world is in the right, it is always
probable that dissentients have something worth hearing to say for themselves,
and that truth would lose something by their silence.
36
It
may be objected, "But some
received principles, especially on the highest and most vital subjects, are more
than half-truths. The Christian morality, for instance, is the whole truth on
that subject, and if any one teaches a morality which varies from it, he is
wholly in error." As this is of all cases the most important in practice,
none can be fitter to test the general maxim. But before pronouncing what
Christian morality is or is not, it would be desirable to decide what is meant
by Christian morality. If it means the morality of the New Testament, I wonder
that any one who derives his knowledge of this from the book itself, can suppose
that it was announced, or intended, as a complete doctrine of morals. The Gospel
always refers to a pre-existing morality, and confines its precepts to the
particulars in which that morality was to be corrected, or superseded by a wider
and higher; expressing itself, moreover, in terms most general, often impossible
to be interpreted literally, and possessing rather the impressiveness of poetry
or eloquence than the precision of legislation. To extract from it a body of
ethical doctrine, has never been possible without eking it out from the Old
Testament, that is, from a system elaborate indeed, but in many respects
barbarous, and intended only for a barbarous people. St. Paul, a declared enemy
to this Judaical mode of interpreting the doctrine and filling up the scheme of
his Master, equally assumes a pre-existing morality, namely, that of the Greeks
and Romans; and his advice to Christians is in a great measure a system of
accommodation to that; even to the extent of giving an apparent sanction to
slavery. What is called Christian, but should rather be termed theological,
morality, was not the work of Christ or the Apostles, but is of much later
origin, having been gradually built up by the Catholic church of the first five
centuries, and though not implicitly adopted by moderns and Protestants, has
been much less modified by them than might have been expected. For the most
part, indeed, they have contented themselves with cutting off the additions
which had been made to it in the middle ages, each sect supplying the place by
fresh additions, adapted to its own character and tendencies. That mankind owe a
great debt to this morality, and to its early teachers, I should be the last
person to deny; but I do not scruple to say of it, that it is, in many important
points, incomplete and one-sided, and that unless ideas and feelings, not
sanctioned by it, had contributed to the formation of European life and
character, human affairs would have been in a worse condition than they now are.
Christian morality (so called) has all the characters of a reaction; it is, in
great part, a protest against Paganism. Its ideal is negative rather than
positive; passive rather than active; Innocence rather than Nobleness;
Abstinence from Evil, rather than energetic Pursuit of Good: in its precepts (as
has been well said) "thou shalt not" predominates unduly over
"thou shalt." In its horror of sensuality, it made an idol of
asceticism, which has been gradually compromised away into one of legality. It
holds out the hope of heaven and the threat of hell, as the appointed and
appropriate motives to a virtuous life: in this falling far below the best of
the ancients, and doing what lies in it to give to human morality an essentially
selfish character, by disconnecting each man's feelings of duty from the
interests of his fellow-creatures, except so far as a self-interested inducement
is offered to him for consulting them. It is essentially a doctrine of passive
obedience; it inculcates submission to all authorities found established; who
indeed are not to be actively obeyed when they command what religion forbids,
but who are not to be resisted, far less rebelled against, for any amount of
wrong to ourselves. And while, in the morality of the best Pagan nations, duty
to the State holds even a disproportionate place, infringing on the just liberty
of the individual; in purely Christian ethics, that grand department of duty is
scarcely noticed or acknowledged. It is in the Koran,
not the New Testament, that we read the maxim—"A ruler who appoints any
man to an office, when there is in his dominions another man better qualified
for it, sins against God and against the State." What little recognition
the idea of obligation to the public obtains in modern morality, is derived from
Greek and Roman sources, not from Christian; as, even in the morality of private
life, whatever exists of magnanimity, highmindedness, personal dignity, even the
sense of honour, is derived from the purely human, not the religious part of our
education, and never could have grown out of a standard of ethics in which the
only worth, professedly recognised, is that of obedience.
37
I
am as far as any one from pretending that these defects are necessarily inherent
in the Christian ethics, in every manner in which it can be conceived, or that
the many requisites of a complete moral doctrine which it does not contain, do
not admit of being reconciled with it. Far less would I insinuate this of the
doctrines and precepts of Christ himself. I believe that the sayings of Christ
are all, that I can see any evidence of their having been intended to be; that
they are irreconcilable with nothing which a comprehensive morality requires;
that everything which is excellent in ethics may be brought within them, with no
greater violence to their language than has been done to it by all who have
attempted to deduce from them any practical system of conduct whatever. But it
is quite consistent with this, to believe that they contain, and were meant to
contain, only a part of the truth; that many essential elements of the highest
morality are among the things which are not provided for, nor intended to be
provided for, in the recorded deliverances of the Founder of Christianity, and
which have been entirely thrown aside in the system of ethics erected on the
basis of those deliverances by the Christian Church. And this being so, I think
it a great error to persist in attempting to find in the Christian doctrine that
complete rule for our guidance, which its author intended it to sanction and
enforce, but only partially to provide. I believe, too, that this narrow theory
is becoming a grave practical evil, detracting greatly from the value of the
moral training and instruction, which so many well-meaning persons are now at
length exerting themselves to promote. I much fear that by attempting to form
the mind and feelings on an exclusively religious type, and discarding those
secular standards (as for want of a better name they may be called) which
heretofore co-existed with and supplemented the Christian ethics, receiving some
of its spirit, and infusing into it some of theirs, there will result, and is
even now resulting, a low, abject, servile type of character, which, submit
itself as it may to what it deems the Supreme Will, is incapable of rising to or
sympathizing in the conception of Supreme Goodness. I believe that other ethics
than any one which can be evolved from exclusively Christian sources, must exist
side by side with Christian ethics to produce the moral regeneration of mankind;
and that the Christian system is no exception to the rule, that in an imperfect
state of the human mind, the interests of truth require a diversity of opinions.
It is not necessary that in ceasing to ignore the moral truths not contained in
Christianity, men should ignore any of those which it does contain. Such
prejudice, or oversight, when it occurs, is altogether an evil; but it is one
from which we cannot hope to be always exempt, and must be regarded as the price
paid for an inestimable good. The exclusive pretension made by a part of the
truth to be the whole, must and ought to be protested against; and if a
reactionary impulse should make the protestors unjust in their turn, this
one-sidedness, like the other, may be lamented, but must be tolerated. If
Christians would teach infidels to be just to Christianity, they should
themselves be just to infidelity. It can do truth no service to blink the fact,
known to all who have the most ordinary acquaintance with literary history, that
a large portion of the noblest and most valuable moral teaching has been the
work, not only of men who did not know, but of men who knew and rejected, the
Christian faith.
38
I
do not pretend that the most unlimited use of the freedom of enunciating all
possible opinions would put an end to the evils of religious or philosophical
sectarianism. Every truth which men of narrow capacity are in earnest about, is
sure to be asserted, inculcated, and in many ways even acted on, as if no other
truth existed in the world, or at all events none that could limit or qualify
the first. I acknowledge that the tendency of all opinions to become sectarian
is not cured by the freest discussion, but is often heightened and exacerbated
thereby; the truth which ought to have been, but was not, seen, being rejected
all the more violently because proclaimed by persons regarded as opponents. But
it is not on the impassioned partisan, it is on the calmer and more
disinterested bystander, that this collision of opinions works its salutary
effect. Not the violent conflict between parts of the truth, but the quiet
suppression of half of it, is the formidable evil; there is always hope when
people are forced to listen to both sides; it is when they attend only to one
that errors harden into prejudices, and truth itself ceases to have the effect
of truth, by being exaggerated into falsehood. And since there are few mental
attributes more rare than that judicial faculty which can sit in intelligent
judgment between two sides of a question, of which only one is represented by an
advocate before it, truth has no chance but in proportion as every side of it,
every opinion which embodies any fraction of the truth, not only finds
advocates, but is so advocated as to be listened to.
39
We
have now recognised the necessity to the mental well-being of mankind (on which
all their other well-being depends) of freedom of opinion, and freedom of the
expression of opinion, on four distinct grounds; which we will now briefly
recapitulate.
40
First,
if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion may, for aught we can
certainly know, be true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility.
41
Secondly,
though the silenced opinion be an error, it may, and very commonly does, contain
a portion of truth; and since the general or prevailing opinion on any subject
is rarely or never the whole truth, it is only by the collision of adverse
opinions that the remainder of the truth has any chance of being supplied.
42
Thirdly,
even if the received opinion be not only true, but the whole truth; unless it is
suffered to be, and actually is, vigorously and earnestly contested, it will, by
most of those who receive it, be held in the manner of a prejudice, with little
comprehension or feeling of its rational grounds. And not only this, but,
fourthly, the meaning of the doctrine itself will be in danger of being lost, or
enfeebled, and deprived of its vital effect on the character and conduct: the
dogma becoming a mere formal profession, inefficacious for good, but cumbering
the ground, and preventing the growth of any real and heartfelt conviction, from
reason or personal experience.
43
Before
quitting the subject of freedom of opinion, it is fit to take some notice of
those who say, that the free expression of all opinions should be permitted, on
condition that the manner be temperate, and do not pass the bounds of fair
discussion. Much might be said on the impossibility of fixing where these
supposed bounds are to be placed; for if the test be offence to those whose
opinion is attacked, I think experience testifies that this offence is given
whenever the attack is telling and powerful, and that every opponent who pushes
them hard, and whom they find it difficult to answer, appears to them, if he
shows any strong feeling on the subject, an intemperate opponent. But this,
though an important consideration in a practical point of view, merges in a more
fundamental objection. Undoubtedly the manner of asserting an opinion, even
though it be a true one, may be very objectionable, and may justly incur severe
censure. But the principal offences of the kind are such as it is mostly
impossible, unless by accidental self-betrayal, to bring home to conviction. The
gravest of them is, to argue sophistically, to suppress facts or arguments, to
misstate the elements of the case, or misrepresent the opposite opinion. But all
this, even to the most aggravated degree, is so continually done in perfect good
faith, by persons who are not considered, and in many other respects may not
deserve to be considered, ignorant or incompetent, that it is rarely possible on
adequate grounds conscientiously to stamp the misrepresentation as morally
culpable; and still less could law presume to interfere with this kind of
controversial misconduct. With regard to what is commonly meant by intemperate
discussion, namely invective, sarcasm, personality, and the like, the
denunciation of these weapons would deserve more sympathy if it were ever
proposed to interdict them equally to both sides; but it is only desired to
restrain the employment of them against the prevailing opinion: against the
unprevailing they may not only be used without general disapproval, but will be
likely to obtain for him who uses them the praise of honest zeal and righteous
indignation. Yet whatever mischief arises from their use, is greatest when they
are employed against the comparatively defenceless; and whatever unfair
advantage can be derived by any opinion from this mode of asserting it, accrues
almost exclusively to received opinions. The worst offence of this kind which
can be committed by a polemic, is to stigmatize those who hold the contrary
opinion as bad and immoral men. To calumny of this sort, those who hold any
unpopular opinion are peculiarly exposed, because they are in general few and
uninfluential, and nobody but themselves feels much interested in seeing justice
done them; but this weapon is, from the nature of the case, denied to those who
attack a prevailing opinion: they can neither use it with safety to themselves,
nor, if they could, would it do anything but recoil on their own cause. In
general, opinions contrary to those commonly received can only obtain a hearing
by studied moderation of language, and the most cautious avoidance of
unnecessary offence, from which they hardly ever deviate even in a slight degree
without losing ground: while unmeasured vituperation employed on the side of the
prevailing opinion, really does deter people from professing contrary opinions,
and from listening to those who profess them. For the interest, therefore, of
truth and justice, it is far more important to restrain this employment of
vituperative language than the other; and, for example, if it were necessary to
choose, there would be much more need to discourage offensive attacks on
infidelity, than on religion. It is, however, obvious that law and authority
have no business with restraining either, while opinion ought, in every
instance, to determine its verdict by the circumstances of the individual case;
condemning every one, on whichever side of the argument he places himself, in
whose mode of advocacy either want of candour, or malignity, bigotry or
intolerance of feeling manifest themselves; but not inferring these vices from
the side which a person takes, though it be the contrary side of the question to
our own: and giving merited honour to every one, whatever opinion he may hold,
who has calmness to see and honesty to state what his opponents and their
opinions really are, exaggerating nothing to their discredit, keeping nothing
back which tells, or can be supposed to tell, in their favour. This is the real
morality of public discussion: and if often violated, I am happy to think that
there are many controversialists who to a great extent observe it, and a still
greater number who conscientiously strive towards it.
44
These
words had scarcely been written, when, as if to give them an emphatic
contradiction, occurred the Government Press Prosecutions of 1858. That
ill-judged interference with the liberty of public discussion has not, however,
induced me to alter a single word in the text, nor has it at all weakened my
conviction that, moments of panic excepted, the era of pains and penalties for
political discussion has, in our own country, passed away. For, in the first
place, the prosecutions were not persisted in; and, in the second, they were
never, properly speaking, political prosecutions. The offence charged was not
that of criticising institutions, or the acts or persons of rulers, but of
circulating what was deemed an immoral doctrine, the lawfulness of Tyrannicide.
If the arguments of the present chapter are of any validity, there ought to
exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical
conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered. It would,
therefore, be irrelevant and out of place to examine here, whether the doctrine
of Tyrannicide deserves that title. I shall content myself with saying that the
subject has been at all times one of the open questions of morals; that the act
of a private citizen in striking down a criminal, who, by raising himself above
the law, has placed himself beyond the reach of legal punishment or control, has
been accounted by whole nations, and by some of the best and wisest of men, not
a crime, but an act of exalted virtue; and that, right or wrong, it is not of
the nature of assassination, but of civil war. As such, I hold that the
instigation to it, in a specific case, may be a proper subject of punishment,
but only if an overt act has followed, and at least a probable connexion can be
established between the act and the instigation. Even then, it is not a foreign
government, but the very government assailed, which alone, in the exercise of
self-defence, can legitimately punish attacks directed against its own
existence. [back]
Note
2
Thomas
Pooley, Bodmin Assizes, July 31, 1857. In December following, he received a free
pardon from the Crown. [back]
George
Jacob Holyoake, August 17, 1857; Edward Truelove, July, 1857. [back]
Note
4
Baron
de Gleichen, Marlborough-street Police Court, August 4, 1857. [back]
Note
5
Ample
warning may be drawn from the large infusion of the passions of a persecutor,
which mingled with the general display of the worst parts of our national
character on the occasion of the Sepoy insurrection. The ravings of fanatics or
charlatans from the pulpit may be unworthy of notice; but the heads of the
Evangelical party have announced as their principle for the government of
Hindoos and Mahomedans, that no schools be supported by public money in which
the Bible is not taught, and by necessary consequence that no public employment
be given to any but real or pretended Christians. An Under-Secretary of State,
in a speech delivered to his constituents on the 12th of November, 1857, is
reported to have said: "Toleration of their faith" (the faith of a
hundred millions of British subjects), "the superstition which they called
religion, by the British Government, had had the effect of retarding the
ascendancy of the British name, and preventing the salutary growth of
Christianity.... Toleration was the great corner-stone of the religious
liberties of this country; but do not let them abuse that precious word
toleration. As he understood it, it meant the complete liberty to all, freedom
of worship, among Christians, who worshipped upon the same foundation. It meant
toleration of all sects and denominations of Christians who believed in the one mediation." I desire to call
attention to the fact, that a man who has been deemed fit to fill a high office
in the government of this country, under a liberal Ministry, maintains the
doctrine that all who do not believe in the divinity of Christ are beyond the
pale of toleration. Who, after this imbecile display, can indulge the illusion
that religious persecution has passed away, never to return? [back]
On
Liberty. John Stuart Mill. 1806–1873.
Chapter III: Of Individuality, as One of the Elements of Well-Being
SUCH
being the reasons which make it imperative that human beings should be free to
form opinions, and to express their opinions without reserve; and such the
baneful consequences to the intellectual, and through that to the moral nature
of man, unless this liberty is either conceded, or asserted in spite of
prohibition; let us next examine whether the same reasons do not require that
men should be free to act upon their opinions—to carry these out in their
lives, without hindrance, either physical or moral, from their fellow-men, so
long as it is at their own risk and peril. This last proviso is of course
indispensable. No one pretends that actions should be as free as opinions. On
the contrary, even opinions lose their immunity, when the circumstances in which
they are expressed are such as to constitute their expression a positive
instigation to some mischievous act. An opinion that corn-dealers are starvers
of the poor, or that private property is robbery, ought to be unmolested when
simply circulated through the press, but may justly incur punishment when
delivered orally to an excited mob assembled before the house of a corn-dealer,
or when handed about among the same mob in the form of a placard. Acts of
whatever kind, which, without justifiable cause, do harm to others, may be, and
in the more important cases absolutely require to be, controlled by the
unfavourable sentiments, and, when needful, by the active interference of
mankind. The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited; he must not
make himself a nuisance to other people. But if he refrains from molesting
others in what concerns them, and merely acts according to his own inclination
and judgment in things which concern himself, the same reasons which show that
opinion should be free, prove also that he should be allowed, without
molestation, to carry his opinions into practice at his own cost. That mankind
are not infallible; that their truths, for the most part, are only half-truths;
that unity of opinion, unless resulting from the fullest and freest comparison
of opposite opinions, is not desirable, and diversity not an evil, but a good,
until mankind are much more capable than at present of recognizing all sides of
the truth, are principles applicable to men's modes of action, not less than to
their opinions. As it is useful that while mankind are imperfect there should be
different opinions, so is it that there should be different experiments of
living; that free scope should be given to varieties of character, short of
injury to others; and that the worth of different modes of life should be proved
practically, when any one thinks fit to try them. It is desirable, in short,
that in things which do not primarily concern others, individuality should
assert itself. Where, not the person's own character, but the traditions of
customs of other people are the rule of conduct, there is wanting one of the
principal ingredients of human happiness, and quite the chief ingredient of
individual and social progress.
1
In
maintaining this principle, the greatest difficulty to be encountered does not
lie in the appreciation of means towards an acknowledged end, but in the
indifference of persons in general to the end itself. If it were felt that the
free development of individuality is one of the leading essentials of
well-being; that it is not only a co-ordinate element with all that is
designated by the terms civilization, instruction, education, culture, but is
itself a necessary part and condition of all those things; there would be no
danger that liberty should be undervalued, and the adjustment of the boundaries
between it and social control would present no extraordinary difficulty. But the
evil is, that individual spontaneity is hardly recognised by the common modes of
thinking, as having any intrinsic worth, or deserving any regard on its own
account. The majority, being satisfied with the ways of mankind as they now are
(for it is they who make them what they are), cannot comprehend why those ways
should not be good enough for everybody; and what is more, spontaneity forms no
part of the ideal of the majority of moral and social reformers, but is rather
looked on with jealousy, as a troublesome and perhaps rebellious obstruction to
the general acceptance of what these reformers, in their own judgment, think
would be best for mankind. Few persons, out of Germany, even comprehend the
meaning of the doctrine which Wilhelm Von Humboldt, so eminent both as a savant
and as a politician, made the text of a treatise—that "the end of man, or
that which is prescribed by the eternal or immutable dictates of reason, and not
suggested by vague and transient desires, is the highest and most harmonious
development of his powers to a complete and consistent whole;" that,
therefore, the object "towards which every human being must ceaselessly
direct his efforts, and on which especially those who design to influence their
fellow-men must ever keep their eyes, is the individuality of power and
development;" that for this there are two requisites, "freedom, and a
variety of situations;" and that from the union of these arise
"individual vigour and manifold diversity," which combine themselves
in "originality." 1
2
Little,
however, as people are accustomed to a doctrine like that of Von Humboldt, and
surprising as it may be to them to find so high a value attached to
individuality, the question, one must nevertheless think, can only be one of
degree. No one's idea of excellence in conduct is that people should do
absolutely nothing but copy one another. No one would assert that people ought
not to put into their mode of life, and into the conduct of their concerns, any
impress whatever of their own judgment, or of their own individual character. On
the other hand, it would be absurd to pretend that people ought to live as if
nothing whatever had been known in the world before they came into it; as if
experience had as yet done nothing towards showing that one mode of existence,
or of conduct, is preferable to another. Nobody denies that people should be so
taught and trained in youth, as to know and benefit by the ascertained results
of human experience. But it is the privilege and proper condition of a human
being, arrived at the maturity of his faculties, to use and interpret experience
in his own way. It is for him to find out what part of recorded experience is
properly applicable to his own circumstances and character. The traditions and
customs of other people are, to a certain extent, evidence of what their
experience has taught them;
presumptive evidence, and as such, have a claim to his deference: but, in the
first place, their experience may be too narrow; or they may not have
interpreted it rightly. Secondly, their interpretation of experience may be
correct, but unsuitable to him. Customs are made for customary circumstances,
and customary characters; and his circumstances or his character may be
uncustomary. Thirdly, though the customs be both good as customs, and suitable
to him, yet to conform to custom, merely as
custom, does not educate or develope in him any of the qualities which are the
distinctive endowment of a human being. The human faculties of perception,
judgment, discriminative feeling, mental activity, and even moral preference,
are exercised only in making a choice. He who does anything because it is the
custom, makes no choice. He gains no practice either in discerning or in
desiring what is best. The mental and moral, like the muscular powers, are
improved only by being used. The faculties are called into no exercise by doing
a thing merely because others do it, no more than by believing a thing only
because others believe it. If the grounds of an opinion are not conclusive to
the person's own reason, his reason cannot be strengthened, but is likely to be
weakened, by his adopting it: and if the inducements to an act are not such as
are consentaneous to his own feelings and character (where affection, or the
rights of others, are not concerned) it is so much done towards rendering his
feelings and character inert and torpid, instead of active and energetic.
3
He
who lets the world, or his own portion of it, choose his plan of life for him,
has no need of any other faculty than the ape-like one of imitation. He who
chooses his plan for himself, employs all his faculties. He must use observation
to see, reasoning and judgment to foresee, activity to gather materials for
decision, discrimination to decide, and when he has decided, firmness and
self-control to hold to his deliberate decision. And these qualities he requires
and exercises exactly in proportion as the part of his conduct which he
determines according to his own judgment and feelings is a large one. It is
possible that he might be guided in some good path, and kept out of harm's way,
without any of these things. But what will be his comparative worth as a human
being? It really is of importance, not only what men do, but also what manner of
men they are that do it. Among the works of man, which human life is rightly
employed in perfecting and beautifying, the first in importance surely is man
himself. Supposing it were possible to get houses built, corn grown, battles
fought, causes tried, and even churches erected and prayers said, by
machinery—by automatons in human form—it would be a considerable loss to
exchange for these automatons even the men and women who at present inhabit the
more civilized parts of the world, and who assuredly are but starved specimens
of what nature can and will produce. Human nature is not a machine to be built
after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree,
which requires to grow and develope itself on all sides, according to the
tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing.
4
It
will probably be conceded that it is desirable people should exercise their
understandings, and that an intelligent following of custom, or even
occasionally an intelligent deviation from custom, is better than a blind and
simply mechanical adhesion to it. To a certain extent it is admitted, that our
understanding should be our own: but there is not the same willingness to admit
that our desires and impulses should be our own likewise; or that to possess
impulses of our own, and of any strength, is anything but a peril and a snare.
Yet desires and impulses are as much a part of a perfect human being, as beliefs
and restraints: and strong impulses are only perilous when not properly
balanced; when one set of aims and inclinations is developed into strength,
while others, which ought to co-exist with them, remain weak and inactive. It is
not because men's desires are strong that they act ill; it is because their
consciences are weak. There is no natural connexion between strong impulses and
a weak conscience. The natural connexion is the other way. To say that one
person's desires and feelings are stronger and more various than those of
another, is merely to say that he has more of the raw material of human nature,
and is therefore capable, perhaps of more evil, but certainly of more good.
Strong impulses are but another name for energy. Energy may be turned to bad
uses; but more good may always be made of an energetic nature, than of an
indolent and impassive one. Those who have most natural feeling, are always
those whose cultivated feelings may be made the strongest. The same strong
susceptibilities which make the personal impulses vivid and powerful, are also
the source from whence are generated the most passionate love of virtue, and the
sternest self-control. It is through the cultivation of these, that society both
does its duty and protects its interests: not by rejecting the stuff of which
heroes are made, because it knows not how to make them. A person whose desires
and impulses are his own—are the expression of his own nature, as it has been
developed and modified by his own culture—is said to have a character. One
whose desires and impulses are not his own, has no character, no more than a
steam-engine has a character. If, in addition to being his own, his impulses are
strong, and are under the government of a strong will, he has an energetic
character. Whoever thinks that individuality of desires and impulses should not
be encouraged to unfold itself, must maintain that society has no need of strong
natures—is not the better for containing many persons who have much
character—and that a high general average of energy is not desirable.
5
In
some early states of society, these forces might be, and were, too much ahead of
the power which society then possessed of disciplining and controlling them.
There has been a time when the element of spontaneity and individuality was in
excess, and the social principle had a hard struggle with it. The difficulty
then was, to induce men of strong bodies or minds to pay obedience to any rules
which required them to control their impulses. To overcome this difficulty, law
and discipline, like the Popes struggling against the Emperors, asserted a power
over the whole man, claiming to control all his life in order to control his
character—which society had not found any other sufficient means of binding.
But society has now fairly got the better of individuality; and the danger which
threatens human nature is not the excess, but the deficiency, of personal
impulses and preferences. Things are vastly changed, since the passions of those
who were strong by station or by personal endowment were in a state of habitual
rebellion against laws and ordinances, and required to be rigorously chained up
to enable the persons within their reach to enjoy any particle of security. In
our times, from the highest class of society down to the lowest, every one lives
as under the eye of a hostile and dreaded censorship. Not only in what concerns
others, but in what concerns only themselves, the individual or the family do
not ask themselves—what do I prefer? or, what would suit my character and
disposition? or, what would allow the best and highest in me to have fair play,
and enable it to grow and thrive? They ask themselves, what is suitable to my
position? what is usually done by persons of my station and pecuniary
circumstances? or (worse still) what is usually done by persons of a station and
circumstances superior to mine? I do not mean that they choose what is
customary, in preference to what suits their own inclination. It does not occur
to them to have any inclination, except for what is customary. Thus the mind
itself is bowed to the yoke: even in what people do for pleasure, conformity is
the first thing thought of; they like in crowds; they exercise choice only among
things commonly done: peculiarity of taste, eccentricity of conduct, are shunned
equally with crimes: until by dint of not following their own nature, they have
no nature to follow: their human capacities are withered and starved: they
become incapable of any strong wishes or native pleasures, and are generally
without either opinions or feelings of home growth, or properly their own. Now
is this, or is it not, the desirable condition of human nature?
6
It
is so, on the Calvinistic theory. According to that, the one great offence of
man is self-will. All the good of which humanity is capable, is comprised in
obedience. You have no choice; thus you must do, and no otherwise:
"whatever is not a duty is a sin." Human nature being radically
corrupt, there is no redemption for any one until human nature is killed within
him. To one holding this theory of life, crushing out any of the human
faculties, capacities, and susceptibilities, is no evil: man needs no capacity,
but that of surrendering himself to the will of God: and if he uses any of his
faculties for any other purpose but to do that supposed will more effectually,
he is better without them. This is the theory of Calvinism; and it is held, in a
mitigated form, by many who do not consider themselves Calvinists; the
mitigation consisting in giving a less ascetic interpretation to the alleged
will of God; asserting it to be his will that mankind should gratify some of
their inclinations; of course not in the manner they themselves prefer, but in
the way of obedience, that is, in a way prescribed to them by authority; and,
therefore, by the necessary conditions of the case, the same for all.
7
In
some such insidious form there is at present a strong tendency to this narrow
theory of life, and to the pinched and hidebound type of human character which
it patronizes. Many persons, no doubt, sincerely think that human beings thus
cramped and dwarfed, are as their Maker designed them to be; just as many have
thought that trees are a much finer thing when clipped into pollards, or cut out
into figures of animals, than as nature made them. But if it be any part of
religion to believe that man was made by a good Being, it is more consistent
with that faith to believe, that this Being gave all human faculties that they
might be cultivated and unfolded, not rooted out and consumed, and that he takes
delight in every nearer approach made by his creatures to the ideal conception
embodied in them, every increase in any of their capabilities of comprehension,
of action, or of enjoyment. There is a different type of human excellence from
the Calvinistic; a conception of humanity as having its nature bestowed on it
for other purposes than merely to be abnegated. "Pagan self-assertion"
is one of the elements of human worth, as well as "Christian
self-denial." 2 There is a Greek ideal of self-development, which
the Platonic and Christian ideal of self-government blends with, but does not
supersede. It may be better to be a John Knox than an Alcibiades, but it is
better to be a Pericles than either; nor would a Pericles, if we had one in
these days, be without anything good which belonged to John Knox.
8
It
is not by wearing down into uniformity all that is individual in themselves, but
by cultivating it and calling it forth, within the limits imposed by the rights
and interests of others, that human beings become a noble and beautiful object
of contemplation; and as the works partake the character of those who do them,
by the same process human life also becomes rich, diversified, and animating,
furnishing more abundant aliment to high thoughts and elevating feelings, and
strengthening the tie which binds every individual to the race, by making the
race infinitely better worth belonging to. In proportion to the development of
his individuality, each person becomes more valuable to himself, and is
therefore capable of being more valuable to others. There is a greater fulness
of life about his own existence, and when there is more life in the units there
is more in the mass which is composed of them. As much compression as is
necessary to prevent the stronger specimens of human nature from encroaching on
the rights of others, cannot be dispensed with; but for this there is ample
compensation even in the point of view of human development. The means of
development which the individual loses by being prevented from gratifying his
inclinations to the injury of others, are chiefly obtained at the expense of the
development of other people. And even to himself there is a full equivalent in
the better development of the social part of his nature, rendered possible by
the restraint put upon the selfish part. To be held to rigid rules of justice
for the sake of others, developes the feelings and capacities which have the
good of others for their object. But to be restrained in things not affecting
their good, by their mere displeasure, developes nothing valuable, except such
force of character as may unfold itself in resisting the restraint. If
acquiesced in, it dulls and blunts the whole nature. To give any fair play to
the nature of each, it is essential that different persons should be allowed to
lead different lives. In proportion as this latitude has been exercised in any
age, has that age been noteworthy to posterity. Even despotism does not produce
its worst effects, so long as individuality exists under it; and whatever
crushes individuality is despotism, by whatever name it may be called, and
whether it professes to be enforcing the will of God or the injunctions of men.
9
Having
said that Individuality is the same thing with development, and that it is only
the cultivation of individuality which produces, or can produce, well-developed
human beings, I might here close the argument: for what more or better can be
said of any condition of human affairs, than that it brings human beings
themselves nearer to the best thing they can be? or what worse can be said of
any obstruction to good, than that it prevents this? Doubtless, however, these
considerations will not suffice to convince those who most need convincing; and
it is necessary further to show, that these developed human beings are of some
use to the undeveloped—to point out to those who do not desire liberty, and
would not avail themselves of it, that they may be in some intelligible manner
rewarded for allowing other people to make use of it without hindrance.
10
In
the first place, then, I would suggest that they might possibly learn something
from them. It will not be denied by anybody, that originality is a valuable
element in human affairs. There is always need of persons not only to discover
new truths, and point out when what were once truths are true no longer, but
also to commence new practices, and set the example of more enlightened conduct,
and better taste and sense in human life. This cannot well be gainsaid by
anybody who does not believe that the world has already attained perfection in
all its ways and practices. It is true that this benefit is not capable of being
rendered by everybody alike: there are but few persons, in comparison with the
whole of mankind, whose experiments, if adopted by others, would be likely to be
any improvement on established practice. But these few are the salt of the
earth; without them, human life would become a stagnant pool. Not only is it
they who introduce good things which did not before exist; it is they who keep
the life in those which already existed. If there were nothing new to be done,
would human intellect cease to be necessary? Would it be a reason why those who
do the old things should forget why they are done, and do them like cattle, not
like human beings? There is only too great a tendency in the best beliefs and
practices to degenerate into the mechanical; and unless there were a succession
of persons whose ever-recurring originality prevents the grounds of those
beliefs and practices from becoming merely traditional, such dead matter would
not resist the smallest shock from anything really alive, and there would be no
reason why civilization should not die out, as in the Byzantine Empire. Persons
of genius, it is true, are, and are always likely to be, a small minority; but
in order to have them, it is necessary to preserve the soil in which they grow.
Genius can only breathe freely in an atmosphere
of freedom. Persons of genius are, ex vi
termini, more individual than any other people—less capable, consequently,
of fitting themselves, without hurtful compression, into any of the small number
of moulds which society provides in order to save its members the trouble of
forming their own character. If from timidity they consent to be forced into one
of these moulds, and to let all that part of themselves which cannot expand
under the pressure remain unexpanded, society will be little the better for
their genius. If they are of a strong character, and break their fetters, they
become a mark for the society which has not succeeded in reducing them to
commonplace, to point at with solemn warning as "wild,"
"erratic," and the like; much as if one should complain of the Niagara
river for not flowing smoothly between its banks like a Dutch canal.
11
I
insist thus emphatically on the importance of genius, and the necessity of
allowing it to unfold itself freely both in thought and in practice, being well
aware that no one will deny the position in theory, but knowing also that almost
every one, in reality, is totally indifferent to it. People think genius a fine
thing if it enables a man to write an exciting poem, or paint a picture. But in
its true sense, that of originality in thought and action, though no one says
that it is not a thing to be admired, nearly all, at heart, think that they can
do very well without it. Unhappily this is too natural to be wondered at.
Originality is the one thing which unoriginal minds cannot feel the use of. They
cannot see what it is to do for them: how should they? If they could see what it
would do for them, it would not be originality. The first service which
originality has to render them, is that of opening their eyes: which being once
fully done, they would have a chance of being themselves original. Meanwhile,
recollecting that nothing was ever yet done which some one was not the first to
do, and that all good things which exist are the fruits of originality, let them
be modest enough to believe that there is something still left for it to
accomplish, and assure themselves that they are more in need of originality, the
less they are conscious of the want. 12
In
sober truth, whatever homage may be professed, or even paid, to real or supposed
mental superiority, the general tendency of things throughout the world is to
render mediocrity the ascendant power among mankind. In ancient history, in the
middle ages, and in a diminishing degree through the long transition from
feudality to the present time, the individual was a power in himself; and if he
had either great talents or a high social position, he was a considerable power.
At present individuals are lost in the crowd. In politics it is almost a
triviality to say that public opinion now rules the world. The only power
deserving the name is that of masses, and of governments while they make
themselves the organ of the tendencies and instincts of masses. This is as true
in the moral and social relations of private life as in public transactions.
Those whose opinions go by the name of public opinion, are not always the same
sort of public: in America they are the whole white population; in England,
chiefly the middle class. But they are always a mass, that is to say, collective
mediocrity. And what is a still greater novelty, the mass do not now take their
opinions from dignitaries in Church or State, from ostensible leaders, or from
books. Their thinking is done for them by men much like themselves, addressing
them or speaking in their name, on the spur of the moment, through the
newspapers. I am not complaining of all this. I do not assert that anything
better is compatible, as a general rule, with the present low state of the human
mind. But that does not hinder the government of mediocrity from being mediocre
government. No government by a democracy or a numerous aristocracy, either in
its political acts or in the opinions, qualities, and tone of mind which it
fosters, ever did or could rise above mediocrity, except in so far as the
sovereign Many have let themselves be guided (which in their best times they
always have done) by the counsels and influence of a more highly gifted and
instructed One or Few. The initiation of all wise or noble things, comes and
must come from individuals; generally at first from some one individual. The
honour and glory of the average man is that he is capable of following that
initiative; that he can respond internally to wise and noble things, and be led
to them with his eyes open. I am not countenancing the sort of
"hero-worship" which applauds the strong man of genius for forcibly
seizing on the government of the world and making it do his bidding in spite of
itself. All he can claim is, freedom to point out the way. The power of
compelling others into it, is not only inconsistent with the freedom and
development of all the rest, but corrupting to the strong man himself. It does
seem, however, that when the opinions of masses of merely average men are
everywhere become or becoming the dominant power, the counterpoise and
corrective to that tendency would be, the more and more pronounced individuality
of those who stand on the higher eminences of thought. It is in these
circumstances most especially, that exceptional individuals, instead of being
deterred, should be encouraged in acting differently from the mass. In other
times there was no advantage in their doing so, unless they acted not only
differently, but better. In this age, the mere example of nonconformity, the
mere refusal to bend the knee to custom, is itself a service. Precisely because
the tyranny of opinion is such as to make eccentricity a reproach, it is
desirable, in order to break through that tyranny, that people should be
eccentric. Eccentricity has always abounded when and where strength of character
has abounded; and the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been
proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour, and moral courage which it
contained. That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the
time. 13
I
have said that it is important to give the freest scope possible to uncustomary
things, in order that it may in time appear which of these are fit to be
converted into customs. But independence of action, and disregard of custom, are
not solely deserving of encouragement for the chance they afford that better
modes of action, and customs more worthy of general adoption, may be struck out;
nor is it only persons of decided mental superiority who have a just claim to
carry on their lives in their own way. There is no reason that all human
existence should be constructed on some one or some small number of patterns. If
a person possesses any tolerable amount of common sense and experience, his own
mode of laying out his existence is the best, not because it is the best in
itself, but because it is his own mode. Human beings are not like sheep; and
even sheep are not undistinguishably alike. A man cannot get a coat or a pair of
boots to fit him, unless they are either made to his measure, or he has a whole
warehouseful to choose from: and is it easier to fit him with a life than with a
coat, or are human beings more like one another in their whole physical and
spiritual conformation than in the shape of their feet? If it were only that
people have diversities of taste, that is reason enough for not attempting to
shape them all after one model. But different persons also require different
conditions for their spiritual development; and can no more exist healthily in
the same moral, than all the variety of plants can in the same physical,
atmosphere and climate. The same things which are helps to one person towards
the cultivation of his higher nature, are hindrances to another. The same mode
of life is a healthy excitement to one, keeping all his faculties of action and
enjoyment in their best order, while to another it is a distracting burthen,
which suspends or crushes all internal life. Such are the differences among
human beings in their sources of pleasure, their susceptibilities of pain, and
the operation on them of different physical and moral agencies, that unless
there is a corresponding diversity in their modes of life, they neither obtain
their fair share of happiness, nor grow up to the mental, moral, and aesthetic
stature of which their nature is capable. Why then should tolerance, as far as
the public sentiment is concerned, extend only to tastes and modes of life which
extort acquiescence by the multitude of their adherents? Nowhere (except in some
monastic institutions) is diversity of taste entirely unrecognised; a person
may, without blame, either like or dislike rowing, or smoking, or music, or
athletic exercises, or chess, or cards, or study, because both those who like
each of these things, and those who dislike them, are too numerous to be put
down. But the man, and still more the woman, who can be accused either of doing
"what nobody does," or of not doing "what everybody does,"
is the subject of as much depreciatory remark as if he or she had committed some
grave moral delinquency. Persons require to possess a title, or some other badge
of rank, or of the consideration of people of rank, to be able to indulge
somewhat in the luxury of doing as they like without detriment to their
estimation. To indulge somewhat, I repeat: for whoever allow themselves much of
that indulgence, incur the risk of something worse than disparaging
speeches—they are in peril of a commission de
lunatico, and of having their property taken from them and given to their
relations. 3 14
There
is one characteristic of the present direction of public opinion, peculiarly
calculated to make it intolerant of any marked demonstration of individuality.
The general average of mankind are not only moderate in intellect, but also
moderate in inclinations: they have no tastes or wishes strong enough to incline
them to do anything unusual, and they consequently do not understand those who
have, and class all such with the wild and intemperate whom they are accustomed
to look down upon. Now, in addition to this fact which is general, we have only
to suppose that a strong movement has set in towards the improvement of morals,
and it is evident what we have to expect. In these days such a movement has set
in; much has actually been effected in the way of increased regularity of
conduct, and discouragement of excesses; and there is a philanthropic spirit
abroad, for the exercise of which there is no more inviting field than the moral
and prudential improvement of our fellow-creatures. These tendencies of the
times cause the public to be more disposed than at most former periods to
prescribe general rules of conduct, and endeavour to make every one conform to
the approved standard. And that standard, express or tacit, is to desire nothing
strongly. Its ideal of character is to be without any marked character; to maim
by compression, like a Chinese lady's foot, every part of human nature which
stands out prominently, and tends to make the person markedly dissimilar in
outline to commonplace humanity. 15
As
is usually the case with ideals which exclude one-half of what is desirable, the
present standard of approbation produces only an inferior imitation of the other
half. Instead of great energies guided by vigorous reason, and strong feelings
strongly controlled by a conscientious will, its result is weak feelings and
weak energies, which therefore can be kept in outward conformity to rule without
any strength either of will or of reason. Already energetic characters on any
large scale are becoming merely traditional. There is now scarcely any outlet
for energy in this country except business. The energy expended in this may
still be regarded as considerable. What little is left from that employment, is
expended on some hobby; which may be a useful, even a philanthropic hobby, but
is always some one thing, and generally a thing of small dimensions. The
greatness of England is now all collective: individually small, we only appear
capable of anything great by our habit of combining; and with this our moral and
religious philanthropists are perfectly contented. But it was men of another
stamp than this that made England what it has been; and men of another stamp
will be needed to prevent its decline.
16
The
despotism of custom is everywhere the standing hindrance to human advancement,
being in unceasing antagonism to that disposition to aim at something better
than customary, which is called, according to circumstances, the spirit of
liberty, or that of progress or improvement. The spirit of improvement is not
always a spirit of liberty, for it may aim at forcing improvements on an
unwilling people; and the spirit of liberty, in so far as it resists such
attempts, may ally itself locally and temporarily with the opponents of
improvement; but the only unfailing and permanent source of improvement is
liberty, since by it there are as many possible independent centres of
improvement as there are individuals. The progressive principle, however, in
either shape, whether as the love of liberty or of improvement, is antagonistic
to the sway of Custom, involving at least emancipation from that yoke; and the
contest between the two constitutes the chief interest of the history of
mankind. The greater part of the world has, properly speaking, no history,
because the despotism of Custom is complete. This is the case over the whole
East. Custom is there, in all things, the final appeal; justice and right mean
conformity to custom; the argument of custom no one, unless some tyrant
intoxicated with power, thinks of resisting. And we see the result. Those
nations must once have had originality; they did not start out of the ground
populous, lettered, and versed in many of the arts of life; they made themselves
all this, and were then the greatest and most powerful nations of the world.
What are they now? The subjects or dependents of tribes whose forefathers
wandered in the forests when theirs had magnificent palaces and gorgeous
temples, but over whom custom exercised only a divided rule with liberty and
progress. A people, it appears, may be progressive for a certain length of time,
and then stop: when does it stop? When it ceases to possess individuality. If a
similar change should befall the nations of Europe, it will not be in exactly
the same shape: the despotism of custom with which these nations are threatened
is not precisely stationariness. It proscribes singularity, but it does not
preclude change, provided all change together. We have discarded the fixed
costumes of our forefathers; every one must still dress like other people, but
the fashion may change once or twice a year. We thus take care that when there
is change it shall be for change's sake, and not from any idea of beauty or
convenience; for the same idea of beauty or convenience would not strike all the
world at the same moment, and be simultaneously thrown aside by all at another
moment. But we are progressive as well as changeable: we continually make new
inventions in mechanical things, and keep them until they are again superseded
by better; we are eager for improvement in politics, in education, even in
morals, though in this last our idea of improvement chiefly consists in
persuading or forcing other people to be as good as ourselves. It is not
progress that we object to; on the contrary, we flatter ourselves that we are
the most progressive people who ever lived. It is individuality that we war
against: we should think we had done wonders if we had made ourselves all alike;
forgetting that the unlikeness of one person to another is generally the first
thing which draws the attention of either to the imperfection of his own type,
and the superiority of another, or the possibility, by combining the advantages
of both, of producing something better than either. We have a warning example in
China—a nation of much talent, and, in some respects, even wisdom, owing to
the rare good fortune of having been provided at an early period with a
particularly good set of customs, the work, in some measure, of men to whom even
the most enlightened European must accord, under certain limitations, the title
of sages and philosophers. They are remarkable, too, in the excellence of their
apparatus for impressing, as far as possible, the best wisdom they possess upon
every mind in the community, and securing that those who have appropriated most
of it shall occupy the posts of honour and power. Surely the people who did this
have discovered the secret of human progressiveness, and must have kept
themselves steadily at the head of the movement of the world. On the contrary,
they have become stationary—have remained so for thousands of years; and if
they are ever to be farther improved, it must be by foreigners. They have
succeeded beyond all hope in what English philanthropists are so industriously
working at—in making a people all alike, all governing their thoughts and
conduct by the same maxims and rules; and these are the fruits. The modern régime
of public opinion is, in an unorganized form, what the Chinese educational and
political systems are in an organized; and unless individuality shall be able
successfully to assert itself against this yoke, Europe, notwithstanding its
noble antecedents and its professed Christianity, will tend to become another
China.
17
What
is it that has hitherto preserved Europe from this lot? What has made the
European family of nations an improving, instead of a stationary portion of
mankind? Not any superior excellence in them, which, when it exists, exists as
the effect, not as the cause; but their remarkable diversity of character and
culture. Individuals, classes, nations, have been extremely unlike one another:
they have struck out a great variety of paths, each leading to something
valuable; and although at every period those who travelled in different paths
have been intolerant of one another, and each would have thought it an excellent
thing if all the rest could have been compelled to travel his road, their
attempts to thwart each other's development have rarely had any permanent
success, and each has in time endured to receive the good which the others have
offered. Europe is, in my judgment, wholly indebted to this plurality of paths
for its progressive and many-sided development. But it already begins to possess
this benefit in a considerably less degree. It is decidedly advancing towards
the Chinese ideal of making all people alike. M. de Tocqueville, in his last
important work, remarks how much more the Frenchmen of the present day resemble
one another, than did those even of the last generation. The same remark might
be made of Englishmen in a far greater degree. In a passage already quoted from
Wilhelm von Humboldt, he points out two things as necessary conditions of human
development, because necessary to render people unlike one another; namely,
freedom, and variety of situations. The second of these two conditions is in
this country every day diminishing. The circumstances which surround different
classes and individuals, and shape their characters, are daily becoming more
assimilated. Formerly, different ranks, different neighbourhoods, different
trades and professions, lived in what might be called different worlds; at
present, to a great degree in the same. Comparatively speaking, they now read
the same things, listen to the same things, see the same things, go to the same
places, have their hopes and fears directed to the same objects, have the same
rights and liberties, and the same means of asserting them. Great as are the
differences of position which remain, they are nothing to those which have
ceased. And the assimilation is still proceeding. All the political changes of
the age promote it, since they all tend to raise the low and to lower the high.
Every extension of education promotes it, because education brings people under
common influences, and gives them access to the general stock of facts and
sentiments. Improvements in the means of communication promote it, by bringing
the inhabitants of distant places into personal contact, and keeping up a rapid
flow of changes of residence between one place and another. The increase of
commerce and manufactures promotes it, by diffusing more widely the advantages
of easy circumstances, and opening all objects of ambition, even the highest, to
general competition, whereby the desire of rising becomes no longer the
character of a particular class, but of all classes. A more powerful agency than
even all these, in bringing about a general similarity among mankind, is the
complete establishment, in this and other free countries, of the ascendancy of
public opinion in the State. As the various social eminences which enabled
persons entrenched on them to disregard the opinion of the multitude, gradually
become levelled; as the very idea of resisting the will of the public, when it
is positively known that they have a will, disappears more and more from the
minds of practical politicians; there ceases to be any social support for
nonconformity—any substantive power in society, which, itself opposed to the
ascendancy of numbers, is interested in taking under its protection opinions and
tendencies at variance with those of the public. 18
The
combination of all these causes forms so great a mass of influences hostile to
Individuality, that it is not easy to see how it can stand its ground. It will
do so with increasing difficulty, unless the intelligent part of the public can
be made to feel its value—to see that it is good there should be differences,
even though not for the better, even though, as it may appear to them, some
should be for the worse. If the claims of Individuality are ever to be asserted,
the time is now, while much is still wanting to complete the enforced
assimilation. It is only in the earlier stages that any stand can be
successfully made against the encroachment. The demand that all other people
shall resemble ourselves, grows by what it feeds on. If resistance waits till
life is reduced nearly to one uniform
type, all deviations from that type will come to be considered impious, immoral,
even monstrous and contrary to nature. Mankind speedily become unable to
conceive diversity, when they have been for some time unaccustomed to see it.
19
Note
1
The Sphere and
Duties of Government,
from the German of Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, pp. 11, 13. [back]
Note 2
Sterling's
Essays. [back]
Note
3
There
is something both contemptible and frightful in the sort of evidence on which,
of late years, any person can be judicially declared unfit for the management of
his affairs; and after his death, his disposal of his property can be set aside,
if there is enough of it to pay the expenses of litigation—which are charged
on the property itself. All of the minute details of his daily life are pried
into, and whatever is found which, seen through the medium of the perceiving and
describing faculties of the lowest of the low, bears an appearance unlike
absolute commonplace, is laid before the jury as evidence of insanity, and often
with success; the jurors being little, if at all, less vulgar and ignorant than
the witnesses; while the judges, with that extraordinary want of knowledge of
human nature and life which continually astonishes us in English lawyers, often
help to mislead them. These trials speak volumes as to the state of feeling and
opinion among the vulgar with regard to human liberty. So far from setting any
value on individuality—so far from respecting the right of each individual to
act, in things indifferent, as seems good to his own judgment and inclinations,
judges and juries cannot even conceive that a person in a state of sanity can
desire such freedom. In former days, when it was proposed to burn atheists,
charitable people used to suggest putting them in a mad-house instead: it would
be nothing surprising now-a-days were we to see this done, and the doers
applauding themselves, because, instead of persecuting for religion, they had
adopted so humane and Christian a mode of treating these unfortunates, not
without a silent satisfaction at their having thereby obtained their deserts. [back]
On
Liberty. John Stuart Mill. 1806–1873.
Chapter IV: Of the Limits to the Authority of Society over the Individual
WHAT,
then, is the rightful limit to the sovereignty of the individual over himself?
Where does the authority of society begin? How much of human life should be
assigned to individuality, and how much to society?
1
Each
will receive its proper share, if each has that which more particularly concerns
it. To individuality should belong the part of life in which it is chiefly the
individual that is interested; to society, the part which chiefly interests
society.
2
Though
society is not founded on a contract, and though no good purpose is answered by
inventing a contract in order to deduce social obligations from it, every one
who receives the protection of society owes a return for the benefit, and the
fact of living in society renders it indispensable that each should be bound to
observe a certain line of conduct towards the rest. This conduct consists first,
in not injuring the interests of one another; or rather certain interests,
which, either by express legal provision or by tacit understanding, ought to be
considered as rights; and secondly, in each person's bearing his share (to be
fixed on some equitable principle) of the labours and sacrifices incurred for
defending the society or its members from injury and molestation. These
conditions society is justified in enforcing at all costs to those who endeavour
to withhold fulfilment. Nor is this all that society may do. The acts of an
individual may be hurtful to others, or wanting in due consideration for their
welfare, without going the length of violating any of their constituted rights.
The offender may then be justly punished by opinion, though not by law. As soon
as any part of a person's conduct affects prejudicially the interests of others,
society has jurisdiction over it, and the question whether the general welfare
will or will not be promoted by interfering with it, becomes open to discussion.
But there is no room for entertaining any such question when a person's conduct
affects the interests of no persons besides himself, or needs not affect them
unless they like (all the persons concerned being of full age, and the ordinary
amount of understanding). In all such cases there should be perfect freedom,
legal and social, to do the action and stand the consequences.
3
It
would be a great misunderstanding of this doctrine to suppose that it is one of
selfish indifference, which pretends that human beings have no business with
each other's conduct in life, and that they should not concern themselves about
the well-doing or well-being of one another, unless their own interest is
involved. Instead of any diminution, there is need of a great increase of
disinterested exertion to promote the good of others. But disinterested
benevolence can find other instruments to persuade people to their good, than
whips and scourges, either of the literal or the metaphorical sort. I am the
last person to undervalue the self-regarding virtues; they are only second in
importance, if even second, to the social. It is equally the business of
education to cultivate both. But even education works by conviction and
persuasion as well as by compulsion, and it is by the former only that, when the
period of education is past, the self-regarding virtues should be inculcated.
Human beings owe to each other help to distinguish the better from the worse,
and encouragement to choose the former and avoid the latter. They should be for
ever stimulating each other to increased exercise of their higher faculties, and
increased direction of their feelings and aims towards wise instead of foolish,
elevating instead of degrading, objects and contemplations. But neither one
person, nor any number of persons, is warranted in saying to another human
creature of ripe years, that he shall not do with his life for his own benefit
what he chooses to do with it. He is the person most interested in his own
well-being: the interest which any other person, except in cases of strong
personal attachment, can have in it, is trifling, compared with that which he
himself has; the interest which society has in him individually (except as to
his conduct to others) is fractional, and altogether indirect: while, with
respect to his own feelings and circumstances, the most ordinary man or woman
has means of knowledge immeasurably surpassing those that can be possessed by
any one else. The interference of society to overrule his judgment and purposes
in what only regards himself, must be grounded on general presumptions; which
may be altogether wrong, and even if right, are as likely as not to be
misapplied to individual cases, by persons no better acquainted with the
circumstances of such cases than those are who look at them merely from without.
In this department, therefore, of human affairs, Individuality has its proper
field of action. In the conduct of human beings towards one another, it is
necessary that general rules should for the most part be observed, in order that
people may know what they have to expect; but in each person's own concerns, his
individual spontaneity is entitled to free exercise. Considerations to aid his
judgment, exhortations to strengthen his will, may be offered to him, even
obtruded on him, by others; but he himself is the final judge. All errors which
he is likely to commit against advice and warning, are far outweighed by the
evil of allowing others to constrain him to what they deem his good.
4
I
do not mean that the feelings with which a person is regarded by others, ought
not to be in any way affected by his self-regarding qualities or deficiencies.
This is neither possible nor desirable. If he is eminent in any of the qualities
which conduce to his own good, he is, so far, a proper object of admiration. He
is so much the nearer to the ideal perfection of human nature. If he is grossly
deficient in those qualities, a sentiment the opposite of admiration will
follow. There is a degree of folly, and a degree of what may be called (though
the phrase is not unobjectionable) lowness or depravation of taste, which,
though it cannot justify doing harm to the person who manifests it, renders him
necessarily and properly a subject of distaste, or, in extreme cases, even of
contempt: a person could not have the opposite qualities in due strength without
entertaining these feelings. Though doing no wrong to any one, a person may so
act as to compel us to judge him, and feel to him, as a fool, or as a being of
an inferior order: and since this judgment and feeling are a fact which he would
prefer to avoid, it is doing him a service to warn him of it beforehand, as of
any other disagreeable consequence to which he exposes himself. It would be
well, indeed, if this good office were much more freely rendered than the common
notions of politeness at present permit, and if one person could honestly point
out to another that he thinks him in fault, without being considered unmannerly
or presuming. We have a right, also, in various ways, to act upon our
unfavourable opinion of any one, not to the oppression of his individuality, but
in the exercise of ours. We are not bound, for example, to seek his society; we
have a right to avoid it (though not to parade the avoidance), for we have a
right to choose the society most acceptable to us. We have a right, and it may
be our duty, to caution others against him, if we think his example or
conversation likely to have a pernicious effect on those with whom he
associates. We may give others a preference over him in optional good offices,
except those which tend to his improvement. In these various modes a person may
suffer very severe penalties at the hands of others, for faults which directly
concern only himself; but he suffers these penalties only in so far as they are
the natural, and, as it were, the spontaneous consequences of the faults
themselves, not because they are purposely inflicted on him for the sake of
punishment. A person who shows rashness, obstinacy, self-conceit—who cannot
live within moderate means—who cannot restrain himself from hurtful
indulgences—who pursues animal pleasures at the expense of those of feeling
and intellect—must expect to be lowered in the opinion of others, and to have
a less share of their favourable sentiments; but of this he has no right to
complain, unless he has merited their favour by special excellence in his social
relations, and has thus established a title to their good offices, which is not
affected by his demerits towards himself. 5
What
I contend for is, that the inconveniences which are strictly inseparable from
the unfavourable judgment of others, are the only ones to which a person should
ever be subjected for that portion of his conduct and character which concerns
his own good, but which does not affect the interests of others in their
relations with him. Acts injurious to others require a totally different
treatment. Encroachment on their rights; infliction on them of any loss or
damage not justified by his own rights; falsehood or duplicity in dealing with
them; unfair or ungenerous use of advantages over them; even selfish abstinence
from defending them against injury—these are fit objects of moral reprobation,
and, in grave cases, of moral retribution and punishment. And not only these
acts, but the dispositions which lead to them, are properly immoral, and fit
subjects of disapprobation which may rise to abhorrence. Cruelty of disposition;
malice and ill-nature; that most anti-social and odious of all passions, envy;
dissimulation and insincerity, irascibility on insufficient cause, and
resentment disproportioned to the provocation; the love of domineering over
others; the desire to engross more than one's share of advantages (the
of the
Greeks); the pride which derives gratification from the abasement of others; the
egotism which thinks self and its concerns more important than everything else,
and decides all doubtful questions in its own favour;—these are moral vices,
and constitute a bad and odious moral character: unlike the self-regarding
faults previously mentioned, which are not properly immoralities, and to
whatever pitch they may be carried, do not constitute wickedness. They may be
proofs of any amount of folly, or want of personal dignity and self-respect; but
they are only a subject of moral reprobation when they involve a breach of duty
to others, for whose sake the individual is bound to have care for himself. What
are called duties to ourselves are not socially obligatory, unless circumstances
render them at the same time duties to others. The term duty to oneself, when it
means anything more than prudence, means self-respect or self-development; and
for none of these is any one accountable to his fellow creatures, because for
none of them is it for the good of mankind that he be held accountable to them.
6
The
distinction between the loss of consideration which a person may rightly incur
by defect of prudence or of personal dignity, and the reprobation which is due
to him for an offence against the rights of others, is not a merely nominal
distinction. It makes a vast difference both in our feelings and in our conduct
towards him, whether he displeases us in things in which we think we have a
right to control him, or in things in which we know that we have not. If he
displeases us, we may express our distaste, and we may stand aloof from a person
as well as from a thing that displeases us; but we shall not therefore feel
called on to make his life uncomfortable. We shall reflect that he already
bears, or will bear, the whole penalty of his error; if he spoils his life by
mismanagement, we shall not, for that reason, desire to spoil it still further:
instead of wishing to punish him, we shall rather endeavour to alleviate his
punishment, by showing him how he may avoid or cure the evils his conduct tends
to bring upon him. He may be to us an object of pity, perhaps of dislike, but
not of anger or resentment; we shall not treat him like an enemy of society: the
worst we shall think ourselves justified in doing is leaving him to himself, if
we do not interfere benevolently by showing interest or concern for him. It is
far otherwise if he has infringed the rules necessary for the protection of his
fellow-creatures, individually or collectively. The evil consequences of his
acts do not then fall on himself, but on others; and society, as the protector
of all its members, must retaliate on him; must inflict pain on him for the
express purpose of punishment, and must take care that it be sufficiently
severe. In the one case, he is an offender at our bar, and we are called on not
only to sit in judgment on him, but, in one shape or another, to execute our own
sentence: in the other case, it is not our part to inflict any suffering on him,
except what may incidentally follow from our using the same liberty in the
regulation of our own affairs, which we allow to him in his.
7
The
distinction here pointed out between the part of a person's life which concerns
only himself, and that which concerns others, many persons will refuse to admit.
How (it may be asked) can any part of the conduct of a member of society be a
matter of indifference to the other members? No person is an entirely isolated
being; it is impossible for a person to do anything seriously or permanently
hurtful to himself, without mischief reaching at least to his near connexions,
and often far beyond them. If he injures his property, he does harm to those who
directly or indirectly derived support from it, and usually diminishes, by a
greater or less amount, the general resources of the community. If he
deteriorates his bodily or mental faculties, he not only brings evil upon all
who depended on him for any portion of their happiness, but disqualifies himself
for rendering the services which he owes to his fellow-creatures generally;
perhaps becomes a burthen on their affection or benevolence; and if such conduct
were very frequent, hardly any offence that is committed would detract more from
the general sum of good. Finally, if by his vices or follies a person does no
direct harm to others, he is nevertheless (it may be said) injurious by his
example; and ought to be compelled to control himself, for the sake of those
whom the sight or knowledge of his conduct might corrupt or mislead.
8
And
even (it will be added) if the consequences of misconduct could be confined to
the vicious or thoughtless individual, ought society to abandon to their own
guidance those who are manifestly unfit for it? If protection against themselves
is confessedly due to children and persons under age, is not society equally
bound to afford it to persons of mature years who are equally incapable of
self-government? If gambling, or drunkenness, or incontinence, or idleness, or
uncleanliness, are as injurious to happiness, and as great a hindrance to
improvement, as many or most of the acts prohibited by law, why (it may be
asked) should not law, so far as is consistent with practicability and social
convenience, endeavour to repress these also? And as a supplement to the
unavoidable imperfections of law, ought not opinion at least to organize a
powerful police against these vices, and visit rigidly with social penalties
those who are known to practise them? There is no question here (it may be said)
about restricting individuality, or impeding the trial of new and original
experiments in living. The only things it is sought to prevent are things which
have been tried and condemned from the beginning of the world until now; things
which experience has shown not to be useful or suitable to any person's
individuality. There must be some length of time and amount of experience, after
which a moral or prudential truth may be regarded as established: and it is
merely desired to prevent generation after generation from falling over the same
precipice which has been fatal to their predecessors.
9
I
fully admit that the mischief which a person does to himself may seriously
affect, both through their sympathies and their interests, those nearly
connected with him, and in a minor degree, society at large. When, by conduct of
this sort, a person is led to violate a distinct and assignable obligation to
any other person or persons, the case is taken out of the self-regarding class,
and becomes amenable to moral disapprobation in the proper sense of the term.
If, for example, a man, through intemperance or extravagance, becomes unable to
pay his debts, or, having undertaken the moral responsibility of a family,
becomes from the same cause incapable of supporting or educating them, he is
deservedly reprobated, and might be justly punished; but it is for the breach of
duty to his family or creditors, not for the extravagance. If the resources
which ought to have been devoted to them, had been diverted from them for the
most prudent investment, the moral culpability would have been the same. George
Barnwell murdered his uncle to get money for his mistress, but if he had done it
to set himself up in business, he would equally have been hanged. Again, in the
frequent case of a man who causes grief to his family by addiction to bad
habits, he deserves reproach for his unkindness or ingratitude; but so he may
for cultivating habits not in themselves vicious, if they are painful to those
with whom he passes his life, or who from personal ties are dependent on him for
their comfort. Whoever fails in the consideration generally due to the interests
and feelings of others, not being compelled by some more imperative duty, or
justified by allowable self-preference, is a subject of moral disapprobation for
that failure, but not for the cause of it, nor for the errors, merely personal
to himself, which may have remotely led to it. In like manner, when a person
disables himself, by conduct purely self-regarding, from the performance of some
definite duty incumbent on him to the public, he is guilty of a social offence.
No person ought to be punished simply for being drunk; but a soldier or a
policeman should be punished for being drunk on duty. Whenever, in short, there
is a definite damage, or a definite risk of damage, either to an individual or
to the public, the case is taken out of the province of liberty, and placed in
that of morality or law. 10
But
with regard to the merely contingent, or, as it may be called, constructive
injury which a person causes to society, by conduct which neither violates any
specific duty to the public, nor occasions perceptible hurt to any assignable
individual except himself; the inconvenience is one which society can afford to
bear, for the sake of the greater good of human freedom. If grown persons are to
be punished for not taking proper care of themselves, I would rather it were for
their own sake, than under pretence of preventing them from impairing their
capacity of rendering to society benefits which society does not pretend it has
a right to exact. But I cannot consent to argue the point as if society had no
means of bringing its weaker members up to its ordinary standard of rational
conduct, except waiting till they do something irrational, and then punishing
them, legally or morally, for it. Society has had absolute power over them
during all the early portion of their existence: it has had the whole period of
childhood and nonage in which to try whether it could make them capable of
rational conduct in life. The existing generation is master both of the training
and the entire circumstances of the generation to come; it cannot indeed make
them perfectly wise and good, because it is itself so lamentably deficient in
goodness and wisdom; and its best efforts are not always, in individual cases,
its most successful ones; but it is perfectly well able to make the rising
generation, as a whole, as good as, and a little better than, itself. If society
lets any considerable number of its members grow up mere children, incapable of
being acted on by rational consideration of distant motives, society has itself
to blame for the consequences. Armed not only with all the powers of education,
but with the ascendancy which the authority of a received opinion always
exercises over the minds who are least fitted to judge for themselves; and aided
by the natural penalties which cannot
be prevented from falling on those who incur the distaste or the contempt of
those who know them; let not society pretend that it needs, besides all this,
the power to issue commands and enforce obedience in the personal concerns of
individuals, in which, on all principles of justice and policy, the decision
ought to rest with those who are to abide the consequences. Nor is there
anything which tends more to discredit and frustrate the better means of
influencing conduct, than a resort to the worse. If there be among those whom it
is attempted to coerce into prudence or temperance, any of the material of which
vigorous and independent characters are made, they will infallibly rebel against
the yoke. No such person will ever feel that others have a right to control him
in his concerns, such as they have to prevent him from injuring them in theirs;
and it easily comes to be considered a mark of spirit and courage to fly in the
face of such usurped authority, and do with ostentation the exact opposite of
what it enjoins; as in the fashion of grossness which succeeded, in the time of
Charles II, to the fanatical moral intolerance of the Puritans. With respect to
what is said of the necessity of protecting society from the bad example set to
others by the vicious or the self-indulgent; it is true that bad example may
have a pernicious effect, especially the example of doing wrong to others with
impunity to the wrong-doer. But we are now speaking of conduct which, while it
does no wrong to others, is supposed to do great harm to the agent himself: and
I do not see how those who believe this, can think otherwise than that the
example, on the whole, must be more salutary than hurtful, since, if it displays
the misconduct, it displays also the painful or degrading consequences which, if
the conduct is justly censured, must be supposed to be in all or most cases
attendant on it.
11
But
the strongest of all the arguments against the interference of the public with
purely personal conduct, is that when it does interfere, the odds are that it
interferes wrongly, and in the wrong place. On questions of social morality, of
duty to others, the opinion of the public, that is, of an overruling majority,
though often wrong, is likely to be still oftener right; because on such
questions they are only required to judge of their own interests; of the manner
in which some mode of conduct, if allowed to be practised, would affect
themselves. But the opinion of a similar majority, imposed as a law on the
minority, on questions of self-regarding conduct, is quite as likely to be wrong
as right; for in these cases public opinion means, at the best, some people's
opinion of what is good or bad for other people; while very often it does not
even mean that; the public, with the most perfect indifference, passing over the
pleasure or convenience of those whose conduct they censure, and considering
only their own preference. There are many who consider as an injury to
themselves any conduct which they have a distaste for, and resent it as an
outrage to their feelings; as a religious bigot, when charged with disregarding
the religious feelings of others, has been known to retort that they disregard
his feelings, by persisting in their abominable worship or creed. But there is
no parity between the feeling of a person for his own opinion, and the feeling
of another who is offended at his holding it; no more than between the desire of
a thief to take a purse, and the desire of the right owner to keep it. And a
person's taste is as much his own peculiar concern as his opinion or his purse.
It is easy for any one to imagine an ideal public, which leaves the freedom and
choice of individuals in all uncertain matters undisturbed, and only requires
them to abstain from modes of conduct which universal experience has condemned.
But where has there been seen a public which set any such limit to its
censorship? or when does the public trouble itself about universal experience?
In its interferences with personal conduct it is seldom thinking of anything but
the enormity of acting or feeling differently from itself; and this standard of
judgment, thinly disguised, is held up to mankind as the dictate of religion and
philosophy, by nine-tenths of all moralists and speculative writers. These teach
that things are right because they are right; because we feel them to be so.
They tell us to search in our own minds and hearts for laws of conduct binding
on ourselves and on all others. What can the poor public do but apply these
instructions, and make their own personal feelings of good and evil, if they are
tolerably unanimous in them, obligatory on all the world?
12
The
evil here pointed out is not one which exists only in theory; and it may perhaps
be expected that I should specify the instances in which the public of this age
and country improperly invests its own preferences with the character of moral
laws. I am not writing an essay on the aberrations of existing moral feeling.
That is too weighty a subject to be discussed parenthetically, and by way of
illustration. Yet examples are necessary, to show that the principle I maintain
is of serious and practical moment, and that I am not endeavouring to erect a
barrier against imaginary evils. And it is not difficult to show, by abundant
instances, that to extend the bounds of what may be called moral police, until
it encroaches on the most unquestionably legitimate liberty of the individual,
is one of the most universal of all human propensities.
13
As
a first instance, consider the antipathies which men cherish on no better
grounds than that persons whose religious opinions are different from theirs, do
not practise their religious observances, especially their religious
abstinences. To cite a rather trivial example, nothing in the creed or practice
of Christians does more to envenom the hatred of Mahomedans against them, than
the fact of their eating pork. There are few acts which Christians and Europeans
regard with more unaffected disgust, than Mussulmans regard this particular mode
of satisfying hunger. It is, in the first place, an offence against their
religion; but this circumstance by no means explains either the degree or the
kind of their repugnance; for wine also is forbidden by their religion, and to
partake of it is by all Mussulmans accounted wrong, but not disgusting. Their
aversion to the flesh of the "unclean beast" is, on the contrary, of
that peculiar character, resembling an instinctive antipathy, which the idea of
uncleanness, when once it thoroughly sinks into the feelings, seems always to
excite even in those whose personal habits are anything but scrupulously
cleanly, and of which the sentiment of religious impurity, so intense in the
Hindoos, is a remarkable example. Suppose now that in a people, of whom the
majority were Mussulmans, that majority should insist upon not permitting pork
to be eaten within the limits of the country. This would be nothing new in
Mahomedan countries. 1 Would it be a legitimate exercise of the moral
authority of public opinion? and if not, why not? The practice is really
revolting to such a public. They also sincerely think that it is forbidden and
abhorred by the Deity. Neither could the prohibition be censured as religious
persecution. It might be religious in its origin, but it would not be
persecution for religion, since nobody's religion makes it a duty to eat pork.
The only tenable ground of condemnation would be, that with the personal tastes
and self-regarding concerns of individuals the public has no business to
interfere. 14
To
come somewhat nearer home: the majority of Spaniards consider it a gross
impiety, offensive in the highest degree to the Supreme Being, to worship him in
any other manner than the Roman Catholic; and no other public worship is lawful
on Spanish soil. The people of all Southern Europe look upon a married clergy as
not only irreligious, but unchaste, indecent, gross, disgusting. What do
Protestants think of these perfectly sincere feelings, and of the attempt to
enforce them against non-Catholics? Yet, if mankind are justified in interfering
with each other's liberty in things which do not concern the interests of
others, on what principle is it possible consistently to exclude these cases? or
who can blame people for desiring to suppress what they regard as a scandal in
the sight of God and man? No stronger case can be shown for prohibiting anything
which is regarded as a personal immorality, than is made out for suppressing
these practices in the eyes of those who regard them as impieties; and unless we
are willing to adopt the logic of persecutors, and to say that we may persecute
others because we are right, and that they must not persecute us because they
are wrong, we must beware of admitting a principle of which we should resent as
a gross injustice the application to ourselves.
15
The
preceding instances may be objected to, although unreasonably, as drawn from
contingencies impossible among us: opinion, in this country, not being likely to
enforce abstinence from meats, or to interfere with people for worshipping, and
for either marrying or not marrying, according to their creed or inclination.
The next example, however, shall be taken from an interference with liberty
which we have by no means passed all danger of. Wherever the Puritans have been
sufficiently powerful, as in New England, and in Great Britain at the time of
the Commonwealth, they have endeavoured, with considerable success, to put down
all public, and nearly all private, amusements: especially music, dancing,
public games, or other assemblages for purposes of diversion, and the theatre.
There are still in this country large bodies of persons by whose notions of
morality and religion these recreations are condemned; and those persons
belonging chiefly to the middle class, who are the ascendant power in the
present social and political condition of the kingdom, it is by no means
impossible that persons of these sentiments may at some time or other command a
majority in Parliament. How will the remaining portion of the community like to
have the amusements that shall be permitted to them regulated by the religious
and moral sentiments of the stricter Calvinists and Methodists? Would they not,
with considerable peremptoriness, desire these intrusively pious members of
society to mind their own business? This is precisely what should be said to
every government and every public, who have the pretension that no person shall
enjoy any pleasure which they think wrong. But if the principle of the
pretension be admitted, no one can reasonably object to its being acted on in
the sense of the majority, or other preponderating power in the country; and all
persons must be ready to conform to the idea of a Christian commonwealth, as
understood by the early settlers in New England, if a religious profession
similar to theirs should ever succeed in regaining its lost ground, as religions
supposed to be declining have so often been known to do.
16
To
imagine another contingency, perhaps more likely to be realized than the one
last mentioned. There is confessedly a strong tendency in the modern world
towards a democratic constitution of society, accompanied or not by popular
political institutions. It is affirmed that in the country where this tendency
is most completely realized—where both society and the government are most
democratic—the United States—the feeling of the majority, to whom any
appearance of a more showy or costly style of living than they can hope to rival
is disagreeable, operates as a tolerably effectual sumptuary law, and that in
many parts of the Union it is really difficult for a person possessing a very
large income, to find any mode of spending it, which will not incur popular
disapprobation. Though such statements as these are doubtless much exaggerated
as a representation of existing facts, the state of things they describe is not
only a conceivable and possible, but a probable result of democratic feeling,
combined with the notion that the public has a right to a veto on the manner in
which individuals shall spend their incomes. We have only further to suppose a
considerable diffusion of Socialist opinions, and it may become infamous in the
eyes of the majority to possess more property than some very small amount, or
any income not earned by manual labour. Opinions similar in principle to these,
already prevail widely among the artizan class, and weigh oppressively on those
who are amenable to the opinion chiefly of that class, namely, its own members.
It is known that the bad workmen who form the majority of the operatives in many
branches of industry, are decidedly of opinion that bad workmen ought to receive
the same wages as good, and that no one ought to be allowed, through piecework
or otherwise, to earn by superior skill or industry more than others can without
it. And they employ a moral police, which occasionally becomes a physical one,
to deter skilful workmen from receiving, and employers from giving, a larger
remuneration for a more useful service. If the public have any jurisdiction over
private concerns, I cannot see that these people are in fault, or that any
individual's particular public can be blamed for asserting the same authority
over his individual conduct, which the general public asserts over people in
general. 17
But,
without dwelling upon supposititious cases, there are, in our own day, gross
usurpations upon the liberty of private life actually practised, and still
greater ones threatened with some expectation of success, and opinions
propounded which assert an unlimited right in the public not only to prohibit by
law everything which it thinks wrong, but in order to get at what it thinks
wrong, to prohibit any number of things which it admits to be innocent.
18
Under
the name of preventing intemperance, the people of one English colony, and of
nearly half the United States, have been interdicted by law from making any use
whatever of fermented drinks, except for medical purposes: for prohibition of
their sale is in fact, as it is intended to be, prohibition of their use. And
though the impracticability of executing the law has caused its repeal in
several of the States which had adopted it, including the one from which it
derives its name, an attempt has notwithstanding been commenced, and is
prosecuted with considerable zeal by many of the professed philanthropists, to
agitate for a similar law in this country. The association, or
"Alliance" as it terms itself, which has been formed for this purpose,
has acquired some notoriety through the publicity given to a correspondence
between its Secretary and one of the very few English public men who hold that a
politician's opinions ought to be founded on principles. Lord Stanley's share in
this correspondence is calculated to strengthen the hopes already built on him,
by those who know how rare such qualities as are manifested in some of his
public appearances, unhappily are among those who figure in political life. The
organ of the Alliance, who would "deeply deplore the recognition of any
principle which could be wrested to justify bigotry and persecution,"
undertakes to point out the "broad and impassable barrier" which
divides such principles from those of the association. "All matters
relating to thought, opinion, conscience, appear to me," he says, "to
be without the sphere of legislation; all pertaining to social act, habit,
relation, subject only to a discretionary power vested in the State itself, and
not in the individual, to be within it." No mention is made of a third
class, different from either of these, viz. acts and habits which are not
social, but individual; although it is to this class, surely, that the act of
drinking fermented liquors belongs. Selling fermented liquors, however, is
trading, and trading is a social act. But the infringement complained of is not
on the liberty of the seller, but on that of the buyer and consumer; since the
State might just as well forbid him to drink wine, as purposely make it
impossible for him to obtain it. The Secretary, however, says, "I claim, as
a citizen, a right to legislate whenever my social rights are invaded by the
social act of another." And now for the definition of these "social
rights." "If anything invades my social rights, certainly the traffic
in strong drink does. It destroys my primary right of security, by constantly
creating and stimulating social disorder. It invades my right of equality, by
deriving a profit from the creation of a misery I am taxed to support. It
impedes my right to free moral and intellectual development, by surrounding my
path with dangers, and by weakening and demoralizing society, from which I have
a right to claim mutual aid and intercourse." A theory of "social
rights," the like of which probably never before found its way into
distinct language: being nothing short of this—that it is the absolute social
right of every individual, that every other individual shall act in every
respect exactly as he ought; that whosoever fails thereof in the smallest
particular, violates my social right, and entitles me to demand from the
legislature the removal of the grievance. So monstrous a principle is far more
dangerous than any single interference with liberty; there is no violation of
liberty which it would not justify; it acknowledges no right to any freedom
whatever, except perhaps to that of holding opinions in secret, without ever
disclosing them: for, the moment an opinion which I consider noxious passes any
one's lips, it invades all the "social rights" attributed to me by the
Alliance. The doctrine ascribes to all mankind a vested interest in each other's
moral, intellectual, and even physical perfection, to be defined by each
claimant according to his own standard.
19
Another
important example of illegitimate interference with the rightful liberty of the
individual, not simply threatened, but long since carried into triumphant
effect, is Sabbatarian legislation. Without doubt, abstinence on one day in the
week, so far as the exigencies of life permit, from the usual daily occupation,
though in no respect religiously binding on any except Jews, is a highly
beneficial custom. And inasmuch as this custom cannot be observed without a
general consent to that effect among the industrious classes, therefore, in so
far as some persons by working may impose the same necessity on others, it may
be allowable and right that the law should guarantee to each the observance by
others of the custom, by suspending the greater operations of industry on a
particular day. But this justification, grounded on the direct interest which
others have in each individual's observance of the practice, does not apply to
the self-chosen occupations in which a person may think fit to employ his
leisure; nor does it hold good, in the smallest degree, for legal restrictions
on amusements. It is true that the amusement of some is the day's work of
others; but the pleasure, not to say the useful recreation, of many, is worth
the labour of a few, provided the occupation is freely chosen, and can be freely
resigned. The operatives are perfectly right in thinking that if all worked on
Sunday, seven days' work would have to be given for six days' wages: but so long
as the great mass of employments are suspended, the small number who for the
enjoyment of others must still work, obtain a proportional increase of earnings;
and they are not obliged to follow those occupations, if they prefer leisure to
emolument. If a further remedy is sought, it might be found in the establishment
by custom of a holiday on some other day of the week for those particular
classes of persons. The only ground, therefore, on which restrictions on Sunday
amusements can be defended, must be that they are religiously wrong; a motive of
legislation which never can be too earnestly protested against. "Deorum
injuriæ Diis curæ." It remains to be proved that society or any of its
officers holds a commission from on high to avenge any supposed offence to
Omnipotence, which is not also a wrong to our fellow creatures. The notion that
it is one man's duty that another should be religious, was the foundation of all
the religious persecutions ever perpetrated, and if admitted, would fully
justify them. Though the feeling which breaks out in the repeated attempts to
stop railway travelling on Sunday, in the resistance to the opening of Museums,
and the like, has not the cruelty of the old persecutors, the state of mind
indicated by it is fundamentally the same. It is a determination not to tolerate
others in doing what is permitted by their religion, because it is not permitted
by the persecutor's religion. It is a belief that God not only abominates the
act of the misbeliever, but will not hold us guiltless if we leave him
unmolested. 20
I
cannot refrain from adding to these examples of the little account commonly made
of human liberty, the language of downright persecution which breaks out from
the press of this country, whenever it feels called on to notice the remarkable
phenomenon of Mormonism. Much might be said on the unexpected and instructive
fact, that an alleged new revelation, and a religion founded on it, the product
of palpable imposture, not even supported by the prestige
of extraordinary qualities in its founder, is believed by hundreds of thousands,
and has been made the foundation of a society, in the age of newspapers,
railways, and the electric telegraph. What here concerns us is, that this
religion, like other and better religions, has its martyrs; that its prophet and
founder was, for his teaching, put to death by a mob; that others of its
adherents lost their lives by the same lawless violence; that they were forcibly
expelled, in a body, from the country in which they first grew up; while, now
that they have been chased into a solitary recess in the midst of a desert, many
in this country openly declare that it would be right (only that it is not
convenient) to send an expedition against them, and compel them by force to
conform to the opinions of other people. The article of the Mormonite doctrine
which is the chief provocative to the antipathy which thus breaks through the
ordinary restraints of religious tolerance, is its sanction of polygamy; which,
though permitted to Mahomedans, and Hindoos, and Chinese, seems to excite
unquenchable animosity when practised by persons who speak English, and profess
to be a kind of Christians. No one has a deeper disapprobation than I have of
this Mormon institution; both for other reasons, and because, far from being in
any way countenanced by the principle of liberty, it is a direct infraction of
that principle, being a mere riveting of the chains of one-half of the
community, and an emancipation of the other from reciprocity of obligation
towards them. Still, it must be remembered that this relation is as much
voluntary on the part of the women concerned in it, and who may be deemed the
sufferers by it, as is the case with any other form of the marriage institution;
and however surprising this fact may appear, it has its explanation in the
common ideas and customs of the world, which teaching women to think marriage
the one thing needful, make it intelligible that many a woman should prefer
being one of several wives, to not being a wife at all. Other countries are not
asked to recognise such unions, or release any portion of their inhabitants from
their own laws on the score of Mormonite opinions. But when the dissentients
have conceded to the hostile sentiments of others, far more than could justly be
demanded; when they have left the countries to which their doctrines were
unacceptable, and established themselves in a remote corner of the earth, which
they have been the first to render habitable to human beings; it is difficult to
see on what principles but those of tyranny they can be prevented from living
there under what laws they please, provided they commit no aggression on other
nations, and allow perfect freedom of departure to those who are dissatisfied
with their ways. A recent writer, in some respects of considerable merit,
proposes (to use his own words) not a crusade, but a civilizade,
against this polygamous community, to put an end to what seems to him a
retrograde step in civilization. It also appears so to me, but I am not aware
that any community has a right to force another to be civilized. So long as the
sufferers by the bad law do not invoke assistance from other communities, I
cannot admit that persons entirely unconnected with them ought to step in and
require that a condition of things with which all who are directly interested
appear to be satisfied, should be put an end to because it is a scandal to
persons some thousands of miles distant, who have no part or concern in it. Let
them send missionaries, if they please, to preach against it; and let them, by
any fair means (of which silencing the teachers is not one,) oppose the progress
of similar doctrines among their own people. If civilization has got the better
of barbarism when barbarism had the world to itself, it is too much to profess
to be afraid lest barbarism, after having been fairly got under, should revive
and conquer civilization. A civilization that can thus succumb to its vanquished
enemy, must first have become so degenerate, that neither its appointed priests
and teachers, nor anybody else, has the capacity, or will take the trouble, to
stand up for it. If this be so, the sooner such a civilization receives notice
to quit, the better. It can only go on from bad to worse, until destroyed and
regenerated (like the Western Empire) by energetic barbarians.
21
Note
1
The
case of the Bombay Parsees is a curious instance in point. When this industrious
and enterprising tribe, the descendants of the Persian fire-worshippers, flying
from their native country before the Caliphs, arrived in Western India, they
were admitted to toleration by the Hindoo sovereigns, on condition of not eating
beef. When those regions afterwards fell under the dominion of Mahomedan
conquerors, the Parsees obtained from them a continuance of indulgence, on
condition of refraining from pork. What was at first obedience to authority
became a second nature, and the Parsees to this day abstain both from beef and
pork. Though not required by their religion, the double abstinence has had time
to grow into a custom of their tribe; and custom, in the East, is a religion. [back]
On
Liberty. John Stuart Mill. 1806–1873.
Chapter V: Applications
THE
PRINCIPLES asserted in these pages must
be more generally admitted as the basis for discussion of details, before a
consistent application of them to all the various departments of government and
morals can be attempted with any prospect of advantage. The few observations I
propose to make on questions of detail, are designed to illustrate the
principles, rather than to follow them out to their consequences. I offer, not
so much applications, as specimens of application; which may serve to bring into
greater clearness the meaning and limits of the two maxims which together form
the entire doctrine of this Essay, and to assist the judgment in holding the
balance between them, in the cases where it appears doubtful which of them is
applicable to the case.
1
The
maxims are, first, that the individual is not accountable to society for his
actions, in so far as these concern the interests of no person but himself.
Advice, instruction, persuasion, and avoidance by other people if thought
necessary by them for their own good, are the only measures by which society can
justifiably express its dislike or disapprobation of his conduct. Secondly, that
for such actions as are prejudicial to the interests of others, the individual
is accountable, and may be subjected either to social or to legal punishment, if
society is of opinion that the one or the other is requisite for its protection.
2
In
the first place, it must by no means be supposed, because damage, or probability
of damage, to the interests of others, can alone justify the interference of
society, that therefore it always does justify such interference. In many cases,
an individual, in pursuing a legitimate object, necessarily and therefore
legitimately causes pain or loss to others, or intercepts a good which they had
a reasonable hope of obtaining. Such oppositions of interest between individuals
often arise from bad social institutions, but are unavoidable while those
institutions last; and some would be unavoidable under any institutions. Whoever
succeeds in an overcrowded profession, or in a competitive examination; whoever
is preferred to another in any contest for an object which both desire, reaps
benefit from the loss of others, from their wasted exertion and their
disappointment. But it is, by common admission, better for the general interest
of mankind, that persons should pursue their objects undeterred by this sort of
consequences. In other words, society admits no right, either legal or moral, in
the disappointed competitors, to immunity from this kind of suffering; and feels
called on to interfere, only when means of success have been employed which it
is contrary to the general interest to permit—namely, fraud or treachery, and
force.
3
Again,
trade is a social act. Whoever undertakes to sell any description of goods to
the public, does what affects the interest of other persons, and of society in
general; and thus his conduct, in principle, comes within the jurisdiction of
society: accordingly, it was once held to be the duty of governments, in all
cases which were considered of importance, to fix prices, and regulate the
processes of manufacture. But it is now recognised, though not till after a long
struggle, that both the cheapness and the good quality of commodities are most
effectually provided for by leaving the producers and sellers perfectly free,
under the sole check of equal freedom to the buyers for supplying themselves
elsewhere. This is the so-called doctrine of Free Trade, which rests on grounds
different from, though equally solid with, the principle of individual liberty
asserted in this Essay. Restrictions on trade, or on production for purposes of
trade, are indeed restraints; and all restraint, quâ
restraint, is an evil: but the restraints in question affect only that part of
conduct which society is competent to restrain, and are wrong solely because
they do not really produce the results which it is desired to produce by them.
As the principle of individual liberty is not involved in the doctrine of Free
Trade, so neither is it in most of the questions which arise respecting the
limits of that doctrine; as for example, what amount of public control is
admissible for the prevention of fraud by adulteration; how far sanitary
precautions, or arrangements to protect workpeople employed in dangerous
occupations, should be enforced on employers. Such questions involve
considerations of liberty, only in so far as leaving people to themselves is
always better, cæteris paribus, than
controlling them: but that they may be legitimately controlled for these ends,
is in principle undeniable. On the other hand, there are questions relating to
interference with trade, which are essentially questions of liberty; such as the
Maine Law, already touched upon; the prohibition of the importation of opium
into China; the restriction of the sale of poisons; all cases, in short, where
the object of the interference is to make it impossible or difficult to obtain a
particular commodity. These interferences are objectionable, not as
infringements on the liberty of the producer or seller, but on that of the
buyer.
4
One
of these examples, that of the sale of poisons, opens a new question; the proper
limits of what may be called the functions of police; how far liberty may
legitimately be invaded for the prevention of crime, or of accident. It is one
of the undisputed functions of government to take precautions against crime
before it has been committed, as well as to detect and punish it afterwards. The
preventive function of government, however, is far more liable to be abused, to
the prejudice of liberty, than the punitory function; for there is hardly any
part of the legitimate freedom of action of a human being which would not admit
of being represented, and fairly too, as increasing the facilities for some form
or other of delinquency. Nevertheless, if a public authority, or even a private
person, sees any one evidently preparing to commit a crime, they are not bound
to look on inactive until the crime is committed, but may interfere to prevent
it. If poisons were never bought or used for any purpose except the commission
of murder, it would be right to prohibit their manufacture and sale. They may,
however, be wanted not only for innocent but for useful purposes, and
restrictions cannot be imposed in the one case without operating in the other.
Again, it is a proper office of public authority to guard against accidents. If
either a public officer or any one else saw a person attempting to cross a
bridge which had been ascertained to be unsafe, and there were no time to warn
him of his danger, they might seize him and turn him back, without any real
infringement of his liberty; for liberty consists in doing what one desires, and
he does not desire to fall into the river. Nevertheless, when there is not a
certainty, but only a danger of mischief, no one but the person himself can
judge of the sufficiency of the motive which may prompt him to incur the risk:
in this case, therefore, (unless he is a child, or delirious, or in some state
of excitement or absorption incompatible with the full use of the reflecting
faculty) he ought, I conceive, to be only warned of the danger; not forcibly
prevented from exposing himself to it. Similar considerations, applied to such a
question as the sale of poisons, may enable us to decide which among the
possible modes of regulation are or are not contrary to principle. Such a
precaution, for example, as that of labelling the drug with some word expressive
of its dangerous character, may be enforced without violation of liberty: the
buyer cannot wish not to know that the thing he possesses has poisonous
qualities. But to require in all cases the certificate of a medical
practitioner, would make it sometimes impossible, always expensive, to obtain
the article for legitimate uses. The only mode apparent to me, in which
difficulties may be thrown in the way of crime committed through this means,
without any infringement, worth taking into account, upon the liberty of those
who desire the poisonous substance for other purposes, consists in providing
what, in the apt language of Bentham, is called "preappointed
evidence." This provision is familiar to every one in the case of
contracts. It is usual and right that the law, when a contract is entered into,
should require as the condition of its enforcing performance, that certain
formalities should be observed, such as signatures, attestation of witnesses,
and the like, in order that in case of subsequent dispute, there may be evidence
to prove that the contract was really entered into, and that there was nothing
in the circumstances to render it legally invalid: the effect being, to throw
great obstacles in the way of fictitious contracts, or contracts made in
circumstances which, if known, would destroy their validity. Precautions of a
similar nature might be enforced in the sale of articles adapted to be
instruments of crime. The seller, for example, might be required to enter in a
register the exact time of the transaction, the name and address of the buyer,
the precise quality and quantity sold; to ask the purpose for which it was
wanted, and record the answer he received. When there was no medical
prescription, the presence of some third person might be required, to bring home
the fact to the purchaser, in case there should afterwards be reason to believe
that the article had been applied to criminal purposes. Such regulations would
in general be no material impediment to obtaining the article, but a very
considerable one to making an improper use of it without detection.
5
The
right inherent in society, to ward off crimes against itself by antecedent
precautions, suggests the obvious limitations to the maxim, that purely
self-regarding misconduct cannot properly be meddled with in the way of
prevention or punishment. Drunkenness, for example, in ordinary cases, is not a
fit subject for legislative interference; but I should deem it perfectly
legitimate that a person, who had once been convicted of any act of violence to
others under the influence of drink, should be placed under a special legal
restriction, personal to himself; that if he were afterwards found drunk, he
should be liable to a penalty, and that if when in that state he committed
another offence, the punishment to which he would be liable for that other
offence should be increased in severity. The making himself drunk, in a person
whom drunkenness excites to do harm to others, is a crime against others. So,
again, idleness, except in a person receiving support from the public, or except
when it constitutes a breach of contract, cannot without tyranny be made a
subject of legal punishment; but if, either from idleness or from any other
avoidable cause, a man fails to perform his legal duties to others, as for
instance to support his children, it is no tyranny to force him to fulfil that
obligation, by compulsory labor, if no other means are available.
6
Again,
there are many acts which, being directly injurious only to the agents
themselves, ought not to be legally interdicted, but which, if done publicly,
are a violation of good manners, and coming thus within the category of offences
against others, may rightfully be prohibited. Of this kind are offences against
decency; on which it is unnecessary to dwell, the rather as they are only
connected indirectly with our subject, the objection to publicity being equally
strong in the case of many actions not in themselves condemnable, nor supposed
to be so. 7
There
is another question to which an answer must be found, consistent with the
principles which have been laid down. In cases of personal conduct supposed to
be blameable, but which respect for liberty precludes society from preventing or
punishing, because the evil directly resulting falls wholly on the agent; what
the agent is free to do, ought other persons to be equally free to counsel or
instigate? This question is not free from difficulty. The case of a person who
solicits another to do an act, is not strictly a case of self-regarding conduct.
To give advice or offer inducements to any one, is a social act, and may,
therefore, like actions in general which affect others, be supposed amenable to
social control. But a little reflection corrects the first impression, by
showing that if the case is not strictly within the definition of individual
liberty, yet the reasons on which the principle of individual liberty is
grounded, are applicable to it. If people must be allowed, in whatever concerns
only themselves, to act as seems best to themselves at their own peril, they
must equally be free to consult with one another about what is fit to be so
done; to exchange opinions, and give and receive suggestions. Whatever it is
permitted to do, it must be permitted to advise to do. The question is doubtful,
only when the instigator derives a personal benefit from his advice; when he
makes it his occupation, for subsistence or pecuniary gain, to promote what
society and the State consider to be an evil. Then, indeed, a new element of
complication is introduced; namely, the existence of classes of persons with an
interest opposed to what is considered as the public weal, and whose mode of
living is grounded on the counteraction of it. Ought this to be interfered with,
or not? Fornication, for example, must be tolerated, and so must gambling; but
should a person be free to be a pimp, or to keep a gambling-house? The case is
one of those which lie on the exact boundary line between two principles, and it
is not at once apparent to which of the two it properly belongs. There are
arguments on both sides. On the side of toleration it may be said, that the fact
of following anything as an occupation, and living or profiting by the practice
of it, cannot make that criminal which would otherwise be admissible; that the
act should either be consistently permitted or consistently prohibited; that if
the principles which we have hitherto defended are true, society has no
business, as society, to decide
anything to be wrong which concerns only the individual; that it cannot go
beyond dissuasion, and that one person should be as free to persuade, as another
to dissuade. In opposition to this it may be contended, that although the
public, or the State, are not warranted in authoritatively deciding, for
purposes of repression or punishment, that such or such conduct affecting only
the interests of the individual is good or bad, they are fully justified in
assuming, if they regard it as bad, that its being so or not is at least a
disputable question: That, this being supposed, they cannot be acting wrongly in
endeavouring to exclude the influence of solicitations which are not
disinterested, of instigators who cannot possibly be impartial—who have a
direct personal interest on one side, and that side the one which the State
believes to be wrong, and who confessedly promote it for personal objects only.
There can surely, it may be urged, be nothing lost, no sacrifice of good, by so
ordering matters that persons shall make their election, either wisely or
foolishly, on their own prompting, as free as possible from the arts of persons
who stimulate their inclinations for interested purposes of their own. Thus (it
may be said) though the statutes respecting unlawful games are utterly
indefensible—though all persons should be free to gamble in their own or each
other's houses, or in any place of meeting established by their own
subscriptions, and open only to the members and their visitors—yet public
gambling-houses should not be permitted. It is true that the prohibition is
never effectual, and that, whatever amount of tyrannical power may be given to
the police, gambling-houses can always be maintained under other pretences; but
they may be compelled to conduct their operations with a certain degree of
secrecy and mystery, so that nobody knows anything about them but those who seek
them; and more than this, society ought not to aim at. There is considerable
force in these arguments. I will not venture to decide whether they are
sufficient to justify the moral anomaly of punishing the accessary, when the
principal is (and must be) allowed to go free; of fining or imprisoning the
procurer, but not the fornicator, the gambling-house keeper, but not the
gambler. Still less ought the common operations of buying and selling to be
interfered with on analogous grounds. Almost every article which is bought and
sold may be used in excess, and the sellers have a pecuniary interest in
encouraging that excess; but no argument can be founded on this, in favour, for
instance, of the Maine Law; because the class of dealers in strong drinks,
though interested in their abuse, are indispensably required for the sake of
their legitimate use. The interest, however, of these dealers in promoting
intemperance is a real evil, and justifies the State in imposing restrictions
and requiring guarantees which, but for that justification, would be
infringements of legitimate liberty.
8
A
further question is, whether the State, while it permits, should nevertheless
indirectly discourage conduct which it deems contrary to the best interests of
the agent; whether, for example, it should take measures to render the means of
drunkenness more costly, or add to the difficulty of procuring them by limiting
the number of the places of sale. On this as on most other practical questions,
many distinctions require to be made. To tax stimulants for the sole purpose of
making them more difficult to be obtained, is a measure differing only in degree
from their entire prohibition; and would be justifiable only if that were
justifiable. Every increase of cost is a prohibition, to those whose means do
not come up to the augmented price; and to those who do, it is a penalty laid on
them for gratifying a particular taste. Their choice of pleasures, and their
mode of expending their income, after satisfying their legal and moral
obligations to the State and to individuals, are their own concern, and must
rest with their own judgment. These considerations may seem at first sight to
condemn the selection of stimulants as special subjects of taxation for purposes
of revenue. But it must be remembered that taxation for fiscal purposes is
absolutely inevitable; that in most countries it is necessary that a
considerable part of that taxation should be indirect; that the State,
therefore, cannot help imposing penalties, which to some persons may be
prohibitory, on the use of some articles of consumption. It is hence the duty of
the State to consider, in the imposition of taxes, what commodities the
consumers can best spare; and à fortiori,
to select in preference those of which it deems the use, beyond a very moderate
quantity, to be positively injurious. Taxation, therefore, of stimulants, up to
the point which produces the largest amount of revenue (supposing that the State
needs all the revenue which it yields) is not only admissible, but to be
approved of. 9
The
question of making the sale of these commodities a more or less exclusive
privilege, must be answered differently, according to the purposes to which the
restriction is intended to be subservient. All places of public resort require
the restraint of a police, and places of this kind peculiarly, because offences
against society are especially apt to originate there. It is, therefore, fit to
confine the power of selling these commodities (at least for consumption on the
spot) to persons of known or vouched-for respectability of conduct; to make such
regulations respecting hours of opening and closing as may be requisite for
public surveillance, and to withdraw the license if breaches of the peace
repeatedly take place through the connivance or incapacity of the keeper of the
house, or if it becomes a rendezvous for concocting and preparing offences
against the law. Any further restriction I do not conceive to be, in principle,
justifiable. The limitation in number, for instance, of beer and spirit houses,
for the express purpose of rendering them more difficult of access, and
diminishing the occasions of temptation, not only exposes all to an
inconvenience because there are some by whom the facility would be abused, but
is suited only to a state of society in which the labouring classes are avowedly
treated as children or savages, and placed under an education of restraint, to
fit them for future admission to the privileges of freedom. This is not the
principle on which the labouring classes are professedly governed in any free
country; and no person who sets due value on freedom will give his adhesion to
their being so governed, unless after all efforts have been exhausted to educate
them for freedom and govern them as freemen, and it has been definitively proved
that they can only be governed as children. The bare statement of the
alternative shows the absurdity of supposing that such efforts have been made in
any case which needs be considered here. It is only because the institutions of
this country are a mass of inconsistencies, that things find admittance into our
practice which belong to the system of despotic, or what is called paternal,
government, while the general freedom of our institutions precludes the exercise
of the amount of control necessary to render the restraint of any real efficacy
as a moral education.
10
It
was pointed out in an early part of this Essay, that the liberty of the
individual, in things wherein the individual is alone concerned, implies a
corresponding liberty in any number of individuals to regulate by mutual
agreement such things as regard them jointly, and regard no persons but
themselves. This question presents no difficulty, so long as the will of all the
persons implicated remains unaltered; but since that will may change, it is
often necessary, even in things in which they alone are concerned, that they
should enter into engagements with one another; and when they do, it is fit, as
a general rule, that those engagements should be kept. Yet, in the laws,
probably, of every country, this general rule has some exceptions. Not only
persons are not held to engagements which violate the rights of third parties,
but it is sometimes considered a sufficient reason for releasing them from an
engagement, that it is injurious to themselves. In this and most other civilized
countries, for example, an engagement by which a person should sell himself, or
allow himself to be sold, as a slave, would be null and void; neither enforced
by law nor by opinion. The ground for thus limiting his power of voluntarily
disposing of his own lot in life, is apparent, and is very clearly seen in this
extreme case. The reason for not interfering, unless for the sake of others,
with a person's voluntary acts, is consideration for his liberty. His voluntary
choice is evidence that what he so chooses is desirable, or at the least
endurable, to him, and his good is on the whole best provided for by allowing
him to take his own means of pursuing it. But by selling himself for a slave, he
abdicates his liberty; he foregoes any future use of it beyond that single act.
He therefore defeats, in his own case, the very purpose which is the
justification of allowing him to dispose of himself. He is no longer free; but
is thenceforth in a position which has no longer the presumption in its favour,
that would be afforded by his voluntarily remaining in it. The principle of
freedom cannot require that he should be free not to be free. It is not freedom,
to be allowed to alienate his freedom. These reasons, the force of which is so
conspicuous in this peculiar case, are evidently of far wider application; yet a
limit is everywhere set to them by the necessities of life, which continually
require, not indeed that we should resign our freedom, but that we should
consent to this and the other limitation of it. The principle, however, which
demands uncontrolled freedom of action in all that concerns only the agents
themselves, requires that those who have become bound to one another, in things
which concern no third party, should be able to release one another from the
engagement: and even without such voluntary release, there are perhaps no
contracts or engagements, except those that relate to money or money's worth, of
which one can venture to say that there ought to be no liberty whatever of
retractation. Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, in the excellent essay from which I
have already quoted, states it as his conviction, that engagements which involve
personal relations or services, should never be legally binding beyond a limited
duration of time; and that the most important of these engagements, marriage,
having the peculiarity that its objects are frustrated unless the feelings of
both the parties are in harmony with it, should require nothing more than the
declared will of either party to dissolve it. This subject is too important, and
too complicated, to be discussed in a parenthesis, and I touch on it only so far
as is necessary for purposes of illustration. If the conciseness and generality
of Baron Humboldt's dissertation had not obliged him in this instance to content
himself with enunciating his conclusion without discussing the premises, he
would doubtless have recognised that the question cannot be decided on grounds
so simple as those to which he confines himself. When a person, either by
express promise or by conduct, has encouraged another to rely upon his
continuing to act in a certain way—to build expectations and calculations, and
stake any part of his plan of life upon that supposition—a new series of moral
obligations arises on his part towards that person, which may possibly be
overruled, but cannot be ignored. And again, if the relation between two
contracting parties has been followed by consequences to others; if it has
placed third parties in any peculiar position, or, as in the case of marriage,
has even called third parties into existence, obligations arise on the part of
both the contracting parties towards those third persons, the fulfilment of
which, or at all events the mode of fulfilment, must be greatly affected by the
continuance or disruption of the relation between the original parties to the
contract. It does not follow, nor can I admit, that these obligations extend to
requiring the fulfilment of the contract at all costs to the happiness of the
reluctant party; but they are a necessary element in the question; and even if,
as Von Humboldt maintains, they ought to make no difference in the legal
freedom of the parties to release themselves from the engagement (and I also
hold that they ought not to make much
difference), they necessarily make a great difference in the moral
freedom. A person is bound to take all these circumstances into account, before
resolving on a step which may affect such important interests of others; and if
he does not allow proper weight to those interests, he is morally responsible
for the wrong. I have made these obvious remarks for the better illustration of
the general principle of liberty, and not because they are at all needed on the
particular question, which, on the contrary, is usually discussed as if the
interest of children was everything, and that of grown persons nothing.
11
I
have already observed that, owing to the absence of any recognised general
principles, liberty is often granted where it should be withheld, as well as
withheld where it should be granted; and one of the cases in which, in the
modern European world, the sentiment of liberty is the strongest, is a case
where, in my view, it is altogether misplaced. A person should be free to do as
he likes in his own concerns; but he ought not to be free to do as he likes in
acting for another, under the pretext that the affairs of the other are his own
affairs. The State, while it respects the liberty of each in what specially
regards himself, is bound to maintain a vigilant control over his exercise of
any power which it allows him to possess over others. This obligation is almost
entirely disregarded in the case of the family relations, a case, in its direct
influence on human happiness, more important than all others taken together. The
almost despotic power of husbands over wives needs not be enlarged upon here,
because nothing more is needed for the complete removal of the evil, than that
wives should have the same rights, and should receive the protection of law in
the same manner, as all other persons; and because, on this subject, the
defenders of established injustice do not avail themselves of the plea of
liberty, but stand forth openly as the champions of power. It is in the case of
children, that misapplied notions of liberty are a real obstacle to the
fulfilment by the State of its duties. One would almost think that a man's
children were supposed to be literally, and not metaphorically, a part of
himself, so jealous is opinion of the smallest interference of law with his
absolute and exclusive control over them; more jealous than of almost any
interference with his own freedom of action: so much less do the generality of
mankind value liberty than power. Consider, for example, the case of education.
Is it not almost a self-evident axiom, that the State should require and compel
the education, up to a certain standard, of every human being who is born its
citizen? Yet who is there that is not afraid to recognise and assert this truth?
Hardly any one indeed will deny that it is one of the most sacred duties of the
parents (or, as law and usage now stand, the father), after summoning a human
being into the world, to give to that being an education fitting him to perform
his part well in life towards others and towards himself. But while this is
unanimously declared to be the father's duty, scarcely anybody, in this country,
will bear to hear of obliging him to perform it. Instead of his being required
to make any exertion or sacrifice for securing education to the child, it is
left to his choice to accept it or not when it is provided gratis! It still
remains unrecognised, that to bring a child into existence without a fair
prospect of being able, not only to provide food for its body, but instruction
and training for its mind, is a moral crime, both against the unfortunate
offspring and against society; and that if the parent does not fulfil this
obligation, the State ought to see it fulfilled, at the charge, as far as
possible, of the parent. 12
Were
the duty of enforcing universal education once admitted, there would be an end
to the difficulties about what the State should teach, and how it should teach,
which now convert the subject into a mere battle-field for sects and parties,
causing the time and labour which should have been spent in educating, to be
wasted in quarrelling about education. If the government would make up its mind
to require for every child a good education, it might save itself the
trouble of providing one. It might
leave to parents to obtain the education where and how they pleased, and content
itself with helping to pay the school fees of the poorer classes of children,
and defraying the entire school expenses of those who have no one else to pay
for them. The objections which are urged with reason against State education, do
not apply to the enforcement of education by the State, but to the State's
taking upon itself to direct that education: which is a totally different thing.
That the whole or any large part of the education of the people should be in
State hands, I go as far as any one in deprecating. All that has been said of
the importance of individuality of character, and diversity in opinions and
modes of conduct, involves, as of the same unspeakable importance, diversity of
education. A general State education is a mere contrivance for moulding people
to be exactly like one another: and as the mould in which it casts them is that
which pleases the predominant power in the government, whether this be a
monarch, a priesthood, an aristocracy, or the majority of the existing
generation, in proportion as it is efficient and successful, it establishes a
despotism over the mind, leading by natural tendency to one over the body. An
education established and controlled by the State should only exist, if it exist
at all, as one among many competing experiments, carried on for the purpose of
example and stimulus, to keep the others up to a certain standard of excellence.
Unless, indeed, when society in general is in so backward a state that it could
not or would not provide for itself any proper institutions of education, unless
the government undertook the task: then, indeed, the government may, as the less
of two great evils, take upon itself the business of schools and universities,
as it may that of joint stock companies, when private enterprise, in a shape
fitted for undertaking great works of industry, does not exist in the country.
But in general, if the country contains a sufficient number of persons qualified
to provide education under government auspices, the same persons would be able
and willing to give an equally good education on the voluntary principle, under
the assurance of remuneration afforded by a law rendering education compulsory,
combined with State aid to those unable to defray the expense.
13
The
instrument for enforcing the law could be no other than public examinations,
extending to all children, and beginning at an early age. An age might be fixed
at which every child must be examined, to ascertain if he (or she) is able to
read. If a child proves unable, the father, unless he has some sufficient ground
of excuse, might be subjected to a moderate fine, to be worked out, if
necessary, by his labour, and the child might be put to school at his expense.
Once in every year the examination should be renewed, with a gradually extending
range of subjects, so as to make the universal acquisition, and what is more,
retention, of a certain minimum of general knowledge, virtually compulsory.
Beyond that minimum, there should be voluntary examinations on all subjects, at
which all who come up to a certain standard of proficiency might claim a
certificate. To prevent the State from exercising, through these arrangements,
an improper influence over opinion, the knowledge required for passing an
examination (beyond the merely instrumental parts of knowledge, such as
languages and their use) should, even in the higher classes of examinations, be
confined to facts and positive science exclusively. The examinations on
religion, politics, or other disputed topics, should not turn on the truth or
falsehood of opinions, but on the matter of fact that such and such an opinion
is held, on such grounds, by such authors, or schools, or churches. Under this
system, the rising generation would be no worse off in regard to all disputed
truths, than they are at present; they would be brought up either churchmen or
dissenters as they now are, the State merely taking care that they should be
instructed churchmen, or instructed dissenters. There would be nothing to hinder
them from being taught religion, if their parents chose, at the same schools
where they were taught other things. All attempts by the State to bias the
conclusions of its citizens on disputed subjects, are evil; but it may very
properly offer to ascertain and certify that a person possesses the knowledge,
requisite to make his conclusions, on any given subject, worth attending to. A
student of philosophy would be the better for being able to stand an examination
both in Locke and in Kant, whichever of the two he takes up with, or even if
with neither: and there is no reasonable objection to examining an atheist in
the evidences of Christianity, provided he is not required to profess a belief
in them. The examinations, however, in the higher branches of knowledge should,
I conceive, be entirely voluntary. It would be giving too dangerous a power to
governments, were they allowed to exclude any one from professions, even from
the profession of teacher, for alleged deficiency of qualifications: and I
think, with Wilhelm von Humboldt, that degrees, or other public certificates of
scientific or professional acquirements, should be given to all who present
themselves for examination, and stand the test; but that such certificates
should confer no advantage over competitors, other than the weight which may be
attached to their testimony by public opinion.
14
It
is not in the matter of education only, that misplaced notions of liberty
prevent moral obligations on the part of parents from being recognised, and
legal obligations from being imposed, where there are the strongest grounds for
the former always, and in many cases for the latter also. The fact itself, of
causing the existence of a human being, is one of the most responsible actions
in the range of human life. To undertake this responsibility—to bestow a life
which may be either a curse or a blessing—unless the being on whom it is to be
bestowed will have at least the ordinary chances of a desirable existence, is a
crime against that being. And in a country either over-peopled or threatened
with being so, to produce children, beyond a very small number, with the effect
of reducing the reward of labour by their competition, is a serious offence
against all who live by the remuneration of their labour. The laws which, in
many countries on the Continent, forbid marriage unless the parties can show
that they have the means of supporting a family, do not exceed the legitimate
powers of the State: and whether such laws be expedient or not (a question
mainly dependent on local circumstances and feelings), they are not
objectionable as violations of liberty. Such laws are interferences of the State
to prohibit a mischievous act—an act injurious to others, which ought to be a
subject of reprobation, and social stigma, even when it is not deemed expedient
to superadd legal punishment. Yet the current ideas of liberty, which bend so
easily to real infringements of the freedom of the individual in things which
concern only himself, would repel the attempt to put any restraint upon his
inclinations when the consequence of their indulgence is a life or lives of
wretchedness and depravity to the offspring, with manifold evils to those
sufficiently within reach to be in any way affected by their actions. When we
compare the strange respect of mankind for liberty, with their strange want of
respect for it, we might imagine that a man had an indispensable right to do
harm to others, and no right at all to please himself without giving pain to any
one. 15
I
have reserved for the last place a large class of questions respecting the
limits of government interference, which, though closely connected with the
subject of this Essay, do not, in strictness, belong to it. These are cases in
which the reasons against interference do not turn upon the principle of
liberty: the question is not about restraining the actions of individuals, but
about helping them: it is asked whether the government should do, or cause to be
done, something for their benefit, instead of leaving it to be done by
themselves, individually, or in voluntary combination.
16
The
objections to government interference, when it is not such as to involve
infringement of liberty, may be of three kinds.
17
The
first is, when the thing to be done is likely to be better done by individuals
than by the government. Speaking generally, there is no one so fit to conduct
any business, or to determine how or by whom it shall be conducted, as those who
are personally interested in it. This principle condemns the interferences, once
so common, of the legislature, or the officers of government, with the ordinary
processes of industry. But this part of the subject has been sufficiently
enlarged upon by political economists, and is not particularly related to the
principles of this Essay.
18
The
second objection is more nearly allied to our subject. In many cases, though
individuals may not do the particular thing so well, on the average, as the
officers of government, it is nevertheless desirable that it should be done by
them, rather than by the government, as a means to their own mental
education—a mode of strengthening their active faculties, exercising their
judgment, and giving them a familiar knowledge of the subjects with which they
are thus left to deal. This is a principal, though not the sole, recommendation
of jury trial (in cases not political); of free and popular local and municipal
institutions; of the conduct of industrial and philanthropic enterprises by
voluntary associations. These are not questions of liberty, and are connected
with that subject only by remote tendencies; but they are questions of
development. It belongs to a different occasion from the present to dwell on
these things as parts of national education; as being, in truth, the peculiar
training of a citizen, the practical part of the political education of a free
people, taking them out of the narrow circle of personal and family selfishness,
and accustoming them to the comprehension of joint interests, the management of
joint concerns—habituating them to act from public or semi-public motives, and
guide their conduct by aims which unite instead of isolating them from one
another. Without these habits and powers, a free constitution can neither be
worked nor preserved; as is exemplified by the too-often transitory nature of
political freedom in countries where it does not rest upon a sufficient basis of
local liberties. The management of purely local business by the localities, and
of the great enterprises of industry by the union of those who voluntarily
supply the pecuniary means, is further recommended by all the advantages which
have been set forth in this Essay as belonging to individuality of development,
and diversity of modes of action. Government operations tend to be everywhere
alike. With individuals and voluntary associations, on the contrary, there are
varied experiments, and endless diversity of experience. What the State can
usefully do, is to make itself a central depository, and active circulator and
diffuser, of the experience resulting from many trials. Its business is to
enable each experimentalist to benefit by the experiments of others; instead of
tolerating no experiments but its own. 19
The
third, and most cogent reason for restricting the interference of government, is
the great evil of adding unnecessarily to its power. Every function superadded
to those already exercised by the government, causes its influence over hopes
and fears to be more widely diffused, and converts, more and more, the active
and ambitious part of the public into hangers-on of the government, or of some
party which aims at becoming the government. If the roads, the railways, the
banks, the insurance offices, the great joint-stock companies, the universities,
and the public charities, were all of them branches of the government; if, in
addition, the municipal corporations and local boards, with all that now
devolves on them, became departments of the central administration; if the
employés of all these different enterprises were appointed and paid by the
government, and looked to the government for every rise in life; not all the
freedom of the press and popular constitution of the legislature would make this
or any other country free otherwise than in name. And the evil would be greater,
the more efficiently and scientifically the administrative machinery was
constructed—the more skilful the arrangements for obtaining the best qualified
hands and heads with which to work it. In England it has of late been proposed
that all the members of the civil service of government should be selected by
competitive examination, to obtain for those employments the most intelligent
and instructed persons procurable; and much has been said and written for and
against this proposal. One of the arguments most insisted on by its opponents,
is that the occupation of a permanent official servant of the State does not
hold out sufficient prospects of emolument and importance to attract the highest
talents, which will always be able to find a more inviting career in the
professions, or in the service of companies and other public bodies. One would
not have been surprised if this argument had been used by the friends of the
proposition, as an answer to its principal difficulty. Coming from the opponents
it is strange enough. What is urged as an objection is the safety-valve of the
proposed system. If indeed all the high talent of the country could
be drawn into the service of the government, a proposal tending to bring about
that result might well inspire uneasiness. If every part of the business of
society which required organized concert, or large and comprehensive views, were
in the hands of the government, and if government offices were universally
filled by the ablest men, all the enlarged culture and practised intelligence in
the country, except the purely speculative, would be concentrated in a numerous
bureaucracy, to whom alone the rest of the community would look for all things:
the multitude for direction and dictation in all they had to do; the able and
aspiring for personal advancement. To be admitted into the ranks of this
bureaucracy, and when admitted, to rise therein, would be the sole objects of
ambition. Under this régime, not only is the outside public ill-qualified, for
want of practical experience, to criticize or check the mode of operation of the
bureaucracy, but even if the accidents of despotic or the natural working of
popular institutions occasionally raise to the summit a ruler or rulers of
reforming inclinations, no reform can be effected which is contrary to the
interest of the bureaucracy. Such is the melancholy condition of the Russian
empire, as shown in the accounts of those who have had sufficient opportunity of
observation. The Czar himself is powerless against the bureaucratic body; he can
send any one of them to Siberia, but he cannot govern without them, or against
their will. On every decree of his they have a tacit veto, by merely refraining
from carrying it into effect. In countries of more advanced civilization and of
a more insurrectionary spirit, the public, accustomed to expect everything to be
done for them by the State, or at least to do nothing for themselves without
asking from the State not only leave to do it, but even how it is to be done,
naturally hold the State responsible for all evil which befals them, and when
the evil exceeds their amount of patience, they rise against the government and
make what is called a revolution; whereupon somebody else, with or without
legitimate authority from the nation, vaults into the seat, issues his orders to
the bureaucracy, and everything goes on much as it did before; the bureaucracy
being unchanged, and nobody else being capable of taking their place.
20
A
very different spectacle is exhibited among a people accustomed to transact
their own business. In France, a large part of the people having been engaged in
military service, many of whom have held at least the rank of non-commissioned
officers, there are in every popular insurrection several persons competent to
take the lead, and improvise some tolerable plan of action. What the French are
in military affairs, the Americans are in every kind of civil business; let them
be left without a government, every body of Americans is able to improvise one,
and to carry on that or any other public business with a sufficient amount of
intelligence, order, and decision. This is what every free people ought to be:
and a people capable of this is certain to be free; it will never let itself be
enslaved by any man or body of men because these are able to seize and pull the
reins of the central administration. No bureaucracy can hope to make such a
people as this do or undergo anything that they do not like. But where
everything is done through the bureaucracy, nothing to which the bureaucracy is
really adverse can be done at all. The constitution of such countries is an
organization of the experience and practical ability of the nation, into a
disciplined body for the purpose of governing the rest; and the more perfect
that organization is in itself, the more successful in drawing to itself and
educating for itself the persons of greatest capacity from all ranks of the
community, the more complete is the bondage of all, the members of the
bureaucracy included. For the governors are as much the slaves of their
organization and discipline, as the governed are of the governors. A Chinese
mandarin is as much the tool and creature of a despotism as the humblest
cultivator. An individual Jesuit is to the utmost degree of abasement the slave
of his order, though the order itself exists for the collective power and
importance of its members.
21
It
is not, also, to be forgotten, that the absorption of all the principal ability
of the country into the governing body is fatal, sooner or later, to the mental
activity and progressiveness of the body itself. Banded together as they
are—working a system which, like all systems, necessarily proceeds in a great
measure by fixed rules—the official body are under the constant temptation of
sinking into indolent routine, or, if they now and then desert that mill-horse
round, of rushing into some half-examined crudity which has struck the fancy of
some leading member of the corps: and the sole check to these closely allied,
though seemingly opposite, tendencies, the only stimulus which can keep the
ability of the body itself up to a high standard, is liability to the watchful
criticism of equal ability outside the body. It is indispensable, therefore,
that the means should exist, independently of the government, of forming such
ability, and furnishing it with the opportunities and experience necessary for a
correct judgment of great practical affairs. If we would possess permanently a
skilful and efficient body of functionaries—above all, a body able to
originate and willing to adopt improvements; if we would not have our
bureaucracy degenerate into a pedantocracy, this body must not engross all the
occupations which form and cultivate the faculties required for the government
of mankind.
22
To determine the point at which evils, so formidable to human freedom and advancement, begin, or rather at which they begin to predominate over the benefits attending the collective application of the force of society, under its recognised chiefs, for the removal of the obstacles which stand in the way of its well-being; to secure as much of the advantages of centralized power and intelligence, as can be had without turning into governmental channels too great a proportion of the general activity—is one of the most difficult and complicated questions in the art of government. It is, in a great measure, a question of detail, in which many and various considerations must be kept in view, and no absolute rule can be laid down. But I believe that the practical principle in which safety resides, the ideal to be kept in view, the standard by which to test all arrangements intended for overcoming the difficulty, may be conveyed in these words: the greatest dissemination of power consistent with efficiency; but the greatest possible centralization of information, and diffusion of it from the centre. Thus, in municipal administration, there would be, as in the New England States, a very minute division among separate officers, chosen by the localities, of all business which is not better left to the persons directly interested; but besides this, there would be, in each department of local affairs, a central superintendence, forming a branch of the general government. The organ of this superintendence would concentrate, as in a focus, the variety of information and experience derived from the conduct of that branch of public business in all the localities, from everything analogous which is done in foreign countries, and from the general principles of political science. This central organ should have a right to know all that is done, and its special duty should be that of making the knowledge acquired in one place available for others. Emancipated from the petty prejudices and narrow views of a locality by its elevated position and comprehensive sphere of observation, its advice would naturally carry much authority; but its actual power, as a permanent institution, should, I conceive, be limited to compelling the local officers to obey the laws laid down for their guidance. In all things not provided for by general rules, those officers should be left to their own judgment, under responsibility to their constituents. For the violation of rules, they should be responsible to law, and the rules themselves should be laid down by the legislature; the central administrative authority only watching over their execution, and if they were not properly carried into effect, appealing, according to the nature of the case, to the tribunals to enforce the law, or to the constituencies to dismiss the functionaries who had not executed it according to its spirit. Such, in its general conception, is the central superintendence which the Poor Law Board is intended to exercise over the administrators of the Poor Rate throughout the country. Whatever powers the Board exercises beyond this limit, were right and necessary in that peculiar case, for the cure of rooted habits of maladministration in matters deeply affecting not the localities merely, but the whole community; since no locality has a moral right to make itself by mismanagement a nest of pauperism, necessarily overflowing into other localities, and impairing the moral and physical condition of the whole labouring community. The powers of administrative coercion and subordinate legislation possessed by the Poor Law Board (but which, owing to the state of opinion on the subject, are very scantily exercised by them), though perfectly justifiable in a case of first-rate national interest, would be wholly out of place in the superintendence of interests purely local. But a central organ of information and instruction for all the localities, would be equally valuable in all departments of administration. A government cannot have too much of the kind of activity which does not impede, but aids and stimulates, individual exertion and development. The mischief begins when, instead of calling forth the activity and powers of individuals and bodies, it substitutes its own activity for theirs; when, instead of informing, advising, and, upon occasion, denouncing, it makes them work in fetters, or bids them stand aside and does their work instead of them. The worth of a State, in the long run, is the worth of the individuals composing it; and a State which postpones the interests of their mental expansion and elevation, to a little more of administrative skill, or that semblance of it which practice gives, in the details of business; a State which dwarfs its men, in order that they may be more docile instruments in its hands even for beneficial purposes—will find that with small men no great thing can really be accomplished; and that the perfection of machinery to which it has sacrificed everything, will in the end avail it nothing, for want of the vital power which, in order that the machine might work more smoothly, it has preferred to banish.
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